Category Archives: Commentary and Analysis

Pay it Forward 25 Years Later: How Heroism Unifies, Heals, and Transforms

Commentary and Analysis,

By Scott T. Allison

When the movie Pay It Forward premiered in October 2000, the film earned mixed reviews from critics. Some reviewers found it emotionally manipulative or overly sentimental. Others appreciated its intentions but criticized it for leaning too heavily into tearjerker territory.

Audience reactions, however, were warmer. Many viewers were moved by its message, even as critics remained skeptical. The film sparked a meaningful grassroots response — including the creation of the Pay It Forward Foundation and millions of symbolic gestures worldwide — suggesting its core message resonated even if its cinematic execution was widely debated.

Pay It Forward tells the story of Trevor, a thoughtful and idealistic seventh-grader who gets a school assignment to “change the world.” His big idea? Help three people in a big, meaningful way. Instead of asking them to pay him back, they each help three more people. It’s like a kindness chain letter, but in real life.

Trevor’s plan sets off a quiet wave of good deeds, as acts of generosity ripple outward in unexpected ways. Along the way, we see how Trevor’s idea impacts his struggling single mom, his emotionally scarred teacher, and eventually, people he’s never even met.

The Unification Principle of Heroism in Action

Pay it Forward illustrates the Unification Principle of Heroism. All heroic actions stem from a loving commitment to healing, social responsibility, and moral contagion. Trevor’s tragic fate amplifies this theme — his sacrifice is not in vain, as it produces widespread solidarity and emotional transformation across a community.

In this way, Pay It Forward dramatizes the moral and emotional logic of the unification principle: heroism seeks to repair, unite, and uplift the human community.

Here are three key moments in Pay It Forward that capture the Unification Principle of Heroism:

1. Trevor’s Classroom Pitch
When Trevor first shares his “pay it forward” idea in class, it sounds almost too simple: help three people in a big way, and ask them to do the same. But in this moment, he’s planting a seed — not just for random acts of kindness, but for a web of mutual care. He’s not aiming to be the hero himself; he’s inviting everyone to be part of something bigger.

2. The Homeless Man’s Redemption
One of the people Trevor helps is a man struggling with addiction and homelessness. Trevor gives him food, shelter, and more importantly, hope. Later, that man “pays it forward” by helping a woman about to take her own life. It’s a powerful illustration of how heroic compassion can restore connection and meaning, even for those who feel discarded by society.

3. The Final Scene and Candlelight Vigil
After Trevor’s tragic death, something remarkable happens — a huge crowd gathers outside his home with candles. Many of them are strangers who were touched by the ripple effect of his idea. This emotional scene drives home the Unification Principle. Heroism isn’t about one person standing alone, but about how one person’s moral action can inspire unity, healing, and collective transformation.

Trevor’s heroism matters not because he was loud or famous, but because he connected people. His simple idea — help three people in a meaningful way — showed that one person’s courage and kindness can ripple outward, linking strangers, healing wounds, and reminding us that we’re all part of something bigger.

References

Allison, S.T. (2024). Unification Principle of Heroism. In: Allison, S.T., Beggan, J.K., Goethals, G.R. (eds) Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies. Springer.

Allison, S. T. (2025). The love with a thousand faces: Heroism as embodied love in action. Heroism Science, 10(2), 1-30.

Bray, P. (2024). Hero’s Journey and Positive Transformation. In: Allison, S.T., Beggan, J.K., Goethals, G.R. (eds) Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies. Springer.

Franco, Z. E., Blau, K., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2011). Heroism: A conceptual analysis and differentiation between heroic action and altruism. Review of General Psychology, 15(2), 99–113.

Kidder, R. M. (2005). Moral courage. HarperCollins.

Leder, M. (Director). (2000). Pay it forward [Film]. Warner Bros.

Pascale, R., Sternin, J., & Sternin, M. (2010). The power of positive deviance: How unlikely innovators solve the world’s toughest problems. Harvard Business Press.

Perlin, J.D., McAdams, D.P. (2024). Redemption: Stories Heroes Live By. In: Allison, S.T., Beggan, J.K., Goethals, G.R. (eds) Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies. Springer.

The Hero’s Journey Parallels the Spiritual Journey

Commentary and Analysis, , , ,

By Scott T. Allison

The stages of the spiritual journey show striking parallels with the stages of the hero’s journey, as both involve a departure from the familiar into a realm of challenges and revelations.

Almost every major spiritual tradition — including Buddhism and Christianity — focuses on human growth resulting from struggle, suffering, and transformation. Franciscan Priest Richard Rohr shares how the story of Jonah became so important to him and his framework of transformation:

Soon after I moved to New Mexico in the late 1980s, I began my studies for what would become the men’s rites of passage. I read everything I could on why every ancient culture deemed it necessary in to initiate the male. It seemed that no culture assumed that men would grow up naturally, because nothing in the male wants to descend. He wants to ascend; he wants to be number one. It’s the competitive nature of masculinity, which has totally informed our culture, no matter who we are. Something has to break through that level of consciousness.  

For me, there is no story—other than the Jesus story itself—which has made that quite as clear as Jonah’s story. Here we have a man who is running from God, running from his own vocation, and God sends a fish to swallow him and take him where he would rather not go. That’s perfect! That’s initiation! We have to be swallowed by something bigger than ourselves. The phrase used by many, including Thomas Merton, was that we have to go into the “belly of the beast”—a place where we are not in control, where we can’t fix it, explain it, understand it, or even like it. Our lack of control, our lack of preference isn’t important. We just have to learn from it.  

I’ve always made a great deal of the passage where Jesus says, “This generation is an evil generation; it seeks a sign, but no sign will be given except the sign of Jonah” (Luke 11:29). He is saying that his message is simple and clear: You’ve got to die before you die. In rites of initiation we teach people that they have to go down before they can possibly go up. In modern psychological language, we call it the death of the ego or the separate self. What has to die is our sense of separateness, because what goes with separateness is superiority. Once we define ourselves according to our nationality, culture, religion, or identity, then we feel we have to defend each one of those. What a waste of energy! We sink to scolding and blaming; not just are we “number one,” but everybody else is a second-class citizen.  

That’s how dualistic our thoughts become. When the private ego didn’t die, Christianity even made salvation into a victory trip, thinking we knew who “won.” To undergo the sign of Jonah feels like losing, and by worldly standards, it looks like it, too. The sign of Jonah is a symbol of surrender, of letting go, of giving up. Most of us wouldn’t describe those as the stages of the journey of enlightenment, but they’re much closer to the real truth and the real journey.  

In short, the spiritual journey is a transformative journey of being humbled by forces beyond our control, and then transforming as a result of that humbling. Triumph over some ordeal leads to a return or rebirth, where the individual, now  enlightened, integrates the acquired wisdom into their life, often with a renewed sense of purpose and a desire to share their insights with others, just as the hero returns with a boon for their community.

References

Allison, S. T. (2024). Spiritual journey’s similarity to the hero’s journey. In S. T. Allison, J. K. Beggan, and G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies. Springer.

Rohr, R. (2025).  A story of transformation. Center for Action and Contemplation, July 11th.

What if Love—Not courage or Duty—is the Real Spark Behind Heroism?

Commentary and Analysis

By Scott T. Allison

More than 2,000 years ago, Plato’s Symposium explored love’s power to inspire acts of bravery. Phaedrus, the dialogue’s opening speaker, claimed that love could push even the most timid soul to risk everything. He imagined an army of lovers who would fight with unmatched valor, unwilling to appear weak before their beloveds. Love, in this sense, isn’t a soft emotion—it’s a force that fuels greatness.

This idea—that love drives heroism—has ancient roots, but it remains deeply relevant today. Across cultures and throughout history, the most profound acts of courage are often born not from duty or ambition, but from love in its many forms. Romantic love, yes—but also friendship, familial bonds, compassion, and even love of justice or humanity itself.

The Many Faces of Love

The Greeks had at least eight words for love:

  • Eros: passionate, romantic love
  • Philia: deep friendship
  • Storge: familial affection
  • Agape: selfless, unconditional love
  • Ludus: playful, flirtatious affection
  • Pragma: practical, enduring love
  • Philautia: self-love (healthy or narcissistic)
  • Mania: obsessive, intense love

Each of these can motivate heroic acts. A parent shielding a child (storge), a friend standing up for another (philia), a partner risking all for their beloved (eros), or someone acting out of universal compassion (agape)—these are all expressions of love leading to moral courage.

Heroism Isn’t Always Grand

We tend to think of heroes as warriors or saviors, but heroism often shows up in quiet, everyday ways. Love in action is what makes someone speak up for the marginalized, stand firm in the face of injustice, or care relentlessly for someone in need. Philosopher Simone Weil saw love as a kind of moral gravity—a pull toward the suffering of others. Psychologists like Erich Fromm and Viktor Frankl showed that love is an act, a commitment, a leap beyond self-interest.

Heroism as Embodied Love

So what exactly do we mean when we say “heroism is love in action”? It’s more than sentiment. It’s embodied—lived through our physical and relational presence. It’s when we show up. When we take a risk. When we put someone else’s well-being above our own, even in small ways.

Modern research supports this. Studies show that empathy and attachment—forms of love—predict acts of moral courage. Neuroscience reveals that witnessing compassion can create real physiological changes: warmth in the chest, goosebumps, a tear in the eye. These reactions often motivate us to act heroically ourselves.

Love Transforms Us

Joseph Campbell, in The Hero with a Thousand Faces, described the hero’s journey as a transformative adventure. What if love is the real engine behind that transformation? Love, like suffering, has the power to change us—but unlike suffering, we seek it. It’s a risk we take willingly.

When we say that heroism is love in action, we’re naming something ancient and intuitive: that real bravery often springs from deep emotional bonds. That standing up, speaking out, or sacrificing doesn’t come from abstract ideals alone—it comes from loving someone or something deeply enough to act.

Everyday Heroism

Most people, when asked who their greatest hero is, name a parent—often their mother. Why? Because mothers (and fathers) embody love through tireless, unglamorous acts of care, protection, and support. This, too, is heroism.

Love doesn’t need to be dramatic to be powerful. It lives in daily, often invisible acts of kindness and integrity. A caregiver tending to the elderly, a teacher advocating for a struggling student, a bystander stepping in—these are the thousand faces of love, each one heroic.

Why It Matters

Rethinking heroism as love in action expands our moral imagination. It says: you don’t need to be a soldier, activist, or first responder to be heroic. You need only to love with courage.

This perspective democratizes heroism. It welcomes us all into the circle of potential greatness—not because we seek glory, but because we care. And because we’re willing to act.

In the end, love isn’t just an emotion. It’s a call to action. And heroism, at its core, may simply be the choice to answer that call.

References

Allison, S. T. (2024). Definitions and descriptions of heroism. In S. T. Allison, J. K. Beggan, and G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies. Springer.

Allison, S. T., Beggan, J. K., & Goethals, G. R. (Eds.) (2024). The encyclopedia of heroism studies. Springer.

Allison, S. T., Goethals, G. R., Marrinan, A. R., Parker, O. M., Spyrou, S. P., Stein, M. (2019). The metamorphosis of the hero: Principles, processes, and purpose. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 606.

Campbell, J. (1949). The hero with a thousand faces. New World Library.

Frankl, V. (1946). Man’s search for meaning. Beacon Press.

Plato. (2008). Symposium (B. Jowett, Trans.). Project Gutenberg. (Original work published ca. 380 BCE)

Constructions of Heroism: How People Perceive, Create, and Establish Heroes

Commentary and Analysis

This post is based on the following chapter in the Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies:

  • Allison, S. T. (2024). Constructions of Heroism. In S. T. Allison, J. K. Beggan, and G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies. Springer Nature.

By Scott T. Allison

Heroism is considered a “construction” because it is a concept and set of behaviors that are shaped and defined by many aspects of people, society, and contexts. The perception of who is considered a hero, what heroic actions entail, and the qualities associated with heroism can vary significantly as a function of different types of constructions. There are at least 12 different ways that heroism has been constructed, as follows:

  1. Perceptual Construction

Gestalt principles of perceptual organization can contribute to seeing heroes where there may be none through the process of pattern recognition and the way our brains organize and interpret visual information (Goethals & Allison, 2019). Gestalt psychology emphasizes that the human mind tends to perceive objects and scenes as whole, organized entities rather than a collection of individual parts. This can lead to the perception of meaningful patterns even in ambiguous or random stimuli. Selective attention can lead to a biased perception, making certain individuals appear heroic even when their actions might not objectively warrant that label.

In addition, the Gestalt principle of closure refers to our tendency to mentally complete incomplete or fragmented information to perceive meaningful wholes. In the case of perceiving heroes, our minds may fill in gaps in information or actions, constructing a narrative that portrays certain individuals as heroic even if the complete story might not support that conclusion. The principle of proximity, moreover, suggests that objects that are close together in space tend to be perceived as belonging to the same group. In the context of seeing heroes, our minds may group together certain actions or individuals based on their proximity, even if the connections between them are tenuous or coincidental. This grouping can create the perception of heroism in individuals who may not have acted heroically at all.

  1. Mental Construction

Our minds and preconceived notions significantly impact our perception and interpretation of events, leading to constructions of heroism (Goethals & Allison, 2012). People tend to construct narratives about themselves and others based on schemas, scripts, stereotypes, biases, attribution theory, and other cognitive mechanisms grounded in psychology and neuroscience. Fiske and Taylor (2013) describe many cognitive biases than can lead to skewed constructions of heroism. For instance, the confirmation bias causes individuals to seek out evidence supporting preexisting assumptions while disregarding contradictory data. Similarly, fundamental attribution error attributes behavior solely to internal dispositions instead of external circumstances. Additionally, recency effect increases the likelihood of recalling more recent instances over older ones even if less significant. Lastly, availability heuristic magnifies importance of easily recalled instances over obscured incidents.

These cognitive processes shape how individuals assess heroism in ambiguous scenarios. If someone expects another person to display heroic behaviors because of gender, race, ethnicity, education, career choice, or another trait, then they might mistake everyday acts as extraordinary feats deserving recognition. Conversely, dismissing potential heroes due to negative characteristics or past mistakes prevents appreciating actual courage during crises. Therefore, understanding our innate tendencies helps avoid premature conclusions about hero status and encourages open-minded appraisals without jumping to hasty judgments based upon limited information or presupposed qualities.

  1. Motivational Construction

Motivational biases can strongly influence people’s perceptions of heroism. Becker’s (1973) concept of the universal urge to heroism refers to a fundamental desire within all human beings to strive for greatness and transcendence. According to Becker, people are driven by a deep longing to leave a lasting impact, to be significant, and to overcome their own mortality. The universal urge to heroism manifests itself in various forms, such as artistic creation, scientific discovery, spiritual enlightenment, political leadership, or acts of altruism and selfless sacrifice for others.

Goethals and Allison (2019) coined the phrase, the romance of heroism, referring to people’s idealistic and quixotic notions of heroes and heroic leadership. This romantic longing for heroes fuels romanticized ideas about who heroes are, what they are like, and when they should emerge. The romance of heroism leads to exaggerated perceptions of the heroic qualities in certain types of people, especially under conditions of stress and uncertainty. This explains why observers frequently imbue heroic attributes onto public figures possessing qualities matching their private aspirations for esteem, love, belonging, respect, admiration, validation, success, wealth, celebrity, and significance. As a result, individuals often idealize or idolize role models who personify their yearnings for significance in society.

  1. Metaphorical Construction

Joseph Campbell (2012, 45) once said, “Every myth, that is to say, whether or not by intention, is psychologically symbolic. Its narratives and images are to be read, therefore, not literally, but as metaphors.” People use metaphors to evoke powerful and vivid images that capture the essence of heroism. Here are some common metaphors used to describe heroes include a shining star, a beacon of hope, a pillar of strength, a guardian angel, a knight in shining armor, a rock, an anchor, a warrior, a lighthouse, a golden heart, a phoenix rising from the ashes, a champion, a rainbow after a storm, a god, and a legend. These metaphors help to paint vivid and evocative images of heroes, capturing the essence of their heroic qualities, actions, and impact on others.

Allison, Goethals and Kramer (2017) reviewed the metaphors that scholars have used to describe heroism. The use of metaphor throughout the history of science has helped scholars identify fresh frameworks for identifying new phenomena worthy of scrutiny. Thomas Carlyle’s (1841) great man theory of heroic leadership offered the first metaphor of human agency as paramount in understanding heroic action. Kinsella, Ritchie, and Igou’s (2015) prototype analysis of a hero’s characteristics serves as an example of research that follows in this metaphorical tradition. Campbell’s (1949) monomyth of the hero’s journey represents another metaphor of heroism. The idea that heroism is a journey of growth would seem to underlie research on heroism as a lifelong developmental process (Allison et al. 2019).

Franco and Zimbardo have composed two metaphors of heroism. The banality of heroism metaphor (Franco & Zimbardo, 2006) emphasizes the human universality of heroism and fosters the heroic potential in everyone. The metaphor of heroic imagination (Franco et al., 2011) “can be seen as mind-set, a collection of attitudes about helping others in need, beginning with caring for others in compassionate ways, but also moving toward a willingness to sacrifice or take risks on behalf of others or in defense of a moral cause” (p. 111).

  1. Spiritual Construction

The world’s spiritual traditions often represent heroism through various archetypes, teachings, and stories that inspire individuals to overcome challenges, cultivate virtues, and strive for personal and collective transformation. Many spiritual traditions highlight the heroism of selfless sacrifice and compassion for others. Heroes are often portrayed as individuals who put the needs and well-being of others above their own, showing great empathy and kindness. Spiritual heroes frequently face trials, temptations, or difficult circumstances, which they must overcome to achieve their goals. These struggles represent the internal and external battles that individuals face on their spiritual journeys. Heroic figures in spiritual tales often confront malevolent forces or negative aspects of the human condition, symbolizing the struggle against ignorance, ego, greed, and hatred. They embody the triumph of good over evil.

Spiritual heroes embody and exemplify virtues such as courage, wisdom, humility, patience, and love. These qualities serve as guiding principles for others on their own heroic paths. Spiritual heroes are often depicted as individuals who have a profound connection with the divine or the sacred. Their actions and accomplishments are seen as a manifestation of divine grace and guidance. Spiritual heroes serve as role models, motivating individuals to make positive changes in their lives and communities. They encourage people to become agents of transformation and contribute to the betterment of the world.

  1. Image Construction

Human societies have used a wide range of images to represent heroism, drawing inspiration from mythology, folklore, literature, art, and popular culture. These images often reflect the values, beliefs, and aspirations of different cultures and historical periods. Heroic images are influenced by cultural, social, and technological changes, and they play a crucial role in shaping the collective imagination and inspiring individuals to strive for greatness, make positive contributions, and face challenges with courage and resilience.

Some common images of heroism found across various societies include everyday heroes such as teachers who inspire their students, caregivers who selflessly care for others, or community leaders who work for the common good; inspirational figures such as Nelson Mandela, Joan of Arc, and Mother Teresa; superheroes such as Spider-Man and Wonder Woman; social activist heroes such as Susan B. Anthony, Mahatma Gandhi, and Che Guevara; and first responders such as firefighters, nurses, law enforcement, military, and paramedics. In Christianity, the image of the cross is a powerful symbol of sacrifice, suffering, and redemption; in Buddhism, the image of the Buddha symbolizes enlightenment and awakening; in Hinduism, the image of Lord Shiva with his third eye represents spiritual wisdom.

  1. Ecological Construction

 Ecological constructions of heroism refer to the human-environment interaction and how it plays a role in becoming heroic and in identifying heroic elements in others. This type of construction was proposed by Efthimiou (2017), who noted that “the body does not, and cannot, therefore, exist independent of its environment” (Johnson 2008, 164). In the context of prosocial behavior, Lerner and Schmid Callina (2014) proposed a relational developmental systems model of character development that adopts this ecological approach. The model describes how our senses, bodily sensations, awareness, perceptions, neurochemistry, cellular behavior, physical expressions, language and so forth are inextricably connected with our interactions and perceptions of the world.

Efthimiou (2017, 146) argues that “the heroic body as biological organism is housed in the pre-conscious, the habitual body and the body schema.” Heroism and heroic descriptions of others are constructions based on the interaction between our sensory-motor experiences and aspects of our physical world such as shapes, color, temperature, and surface textures. Moreover, different types of intelligence embedded in our bodies, such as emotional intelligence and physical intelligence, are integral part of the heroic body. These embodied intelligences and their interactions with the physical world shape how heroic action is performed and perceived.

  1. Social Construction

Heroism is socially constructed through the collective beliefs, values, and norms of a particular society (Rankin and Eagly 2008). The social construction of heroism can vary significantly across different societies and can be affected by a society’s values, history, mythology, political system, media, religion, philosophy, gender norms, national identity, collective memory, and social movements. Decter-Frain, Vanstone, and Frimer (2017) offered a social constructivist approach to how groups identify moral heroes. These scholars argue that “groups may catapult relatively ordinary individuals into moral heroism” (121). Groups do so by giving these ordinary people titles and awards, propagating heroic portraits, and encouraging them to give inspiring speeches. Social constructions of moral heroes benefits a society by promoting ingroup identity, providing a rallying point around which to unite, encouraging cooperation, and providing moral models (Kinsella, Ritchie, and Igou 2015).

The social construction of heroism is dynamic and can evolve over time. As societies change, so do their definitions and representations of heroism. What is considered heroic in one era or culture may not necessarily hold the same status in another. Understanding the social construction of heroism helps us analyze how societies collectively assign value and meaning to certain actions, individuals, and ideals, contributing to the shaping of cultural identity and aspirations. Understanding how societies construct their heroes is important for understanding how heroes embody societal norms, and how heroes reflect the values, beliefs, and aspirations of a society. The social construction of heroes enables individuals to navigate the complexities of culture, power dynamics, and collective values.

  1. Historical Construction

Throughout history, heroes have been constructed and celebrated by societies in various ways. From antiquity to modern times, cultures have created heroic figures and narratives that embody their values, ideals, and aspirations. Examples of historical constructions abound. Ancient Greek’s constructed the mythological figure of Achilles, the hero of the Trojan War and a central figure in the Iliad. In Norse mythology, Thor, the god of thunder, and Odin, the All-Father, were revered as heroic figures. The epic of Gilgamesh, one of the oldest known literary works, tells the story of a legendary Sumerian king. In ancient China, Guan Yu was a general known for his loyalty, martial prowess, and unwavering adherence to Confucian virtues. Ancient India constructed the heroism of Arjuna, a skilled warrior and one of the Pandava brothers. His moral dilemma and inner conflict on the battlefield of Kurukshetra, as depicted in the Bhagavad Gita, exemplify the complexities of duty, righteousness, and heroism in the face of adversity.

Medieval Europe revered the legendary King Arthur and his knights of the Round Table. In Medieval Japan, Minamoto no Yoshitsune was a brave samurai warrior during the late Heian and early Kamakura periods in Japan. During the Renaissance, Joan of Arc was constructed heroically for her unwavering faith, courage, and sense of divine mission. Early in its history, the United States constructed George Washington as an iconic hero during the American Revolution. These examples illustrate how societies have drawn from historical events to construct heroes from a diverse range of contexts, including mythology and literature. Each hero embodies the specific values and cultural ideals of their time and place, reflecting the dynamic nature of heroism and its connection to the collective identity of societies throughout history.

  1. Media Construction

In modern society, the media has played a significant role in constructing and shaping heroes. Media representations of heroes are guided by the latest technology delivery systems and reflect contemporary values, cultural trends, and societal aspirations. The rise of social media gave rise to social media influencers and internet personalities who are celebrated as heroes or anti-heroes. The media provides extensive coverage of certain individuals, focusing on their achievements, talents, philanthropy, or charismatic personalities. Through repeated exposure in news articles, interviews, and entertainment shows, these figures become familiar and influential in the public eye. A celebrity thus becomes, in the words of Boorstin (1961, 8), “a person well known for his well-knownness.”

Social media platforms such as Instagram have a profound influence on creating heroes by providing a powerful and accessible platform for individuals to cultivate and promote their public image. The nature of Instagram, with its emphasis on visual content and personal branding, allows users to present themselves in curated and aspirational ways, leading to the construction of heroic personas. This hero construction derives from personal branding, the showcasing of talents and achievements, philanthropy and social impact, engagement with fans, the fostering of fan communities, visual storytelling, and collaborations and partnerships.

  1. Physical Construction

Societies create physical representations of heroes as a way to honor, commemorate, and celebrate individuals or figures who are seen as embodying heroic qualities or making significant contributions to their communities or the world. These representations take various forms, including statues and sculptures often on display in public spaces, parks, and squares; war memorials erected to honor fallen soldiers and veterans; portrait paintings and portraits;

architectural monuments; named streets, parks, and buildings; national symbols and currency; hall of fames and walk of fames; public commemorations and ceremonies; religious and spiritual places; and digital memorials. These physical representations serve not only to celebrate the heroic deeds and qualities of specific individuals but also to reinforce collective memory and cultural identity. They play a crucial role in preserving historical narratives and inspiring future generations to aspire to greatness and contribute positively to society.

  1. Cultural Construction

 Different cultures hold different conceptions of heroism (Sun, Kinsella, and Igou 2023). To illustrate cultural differences in hero construction, we will compare hero construction in Ancient Egypt with hero construction in modern America. The ancient Egyptians highly valued and actively cultivated the worship and glorification of certain individuals who were seen as heroic or semi-divine figures. These culturally constructed heroes were dominated by images of

Modern US culture offers an interesting contrast with that of ancient Egypt. American culture fosters the creation of cultural heroes through the media and entertainment industry. Actors, musicians, athletes, and other public figures are elevated to hero status through extensive media coverage, celebrity endorsements, and fan engagement. Movies, TV shows, music, and sports events often glorify these figures, emphasizing their talent, achievements, and charisma.

Reality TV shows and social media platforms have given rise to a new breed of cultural heroes. Individuals who gain popularity through reality TV competitions or social media influence can become widely recognized figures with large followings. American culture celebrates entrepreneurs, inventors, and innovators who have made significant contributions to society. American culture places a strong emphasis on sports heroes. Athletes who achieve exceptional success, break records, or display extraordinary dedication become cultural icons.

Conclusion

Heroism appears to be a construction reflecting many factors ranging from the micro (biological factors) to the macro (societal factors). This undeniable fact does not preclude the need to objectively identify, categorize, and encourage real heroic action. Hero training programs based on current constructions of heroism are undeniably important in promoting social harmony and progress. This chapter merely underscores the reality of heroism being subject to change based on changes in history, religion, politics, psychology, media, and many other forces that are constantly in flux.

References

Allison, S. T., Goethals, G. R., Marrinan, A. R., Parker, O. M., Spyrou, S. P., Stein, M. (2019). The metamorphosis of the hero: Principles, processes, and purpose. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 606.

Becker, E. (1973). The denial of death. New York: Free press.

Boorstin, D. J. (1961). The image. New York: Atheneum.

Campbell, J. (1949). The hero with a thousand faces. New York: New World Library.

Campbell, J. (2012). The Inner Reaches of Outer Space. New York: New World Library.

Decter-Frain, A., Vanstone, R., & Frimer, J. A. (2017). Why and how groups create moral heroes. In S. T. Allison, G. R. Goethals, & R. M. Kramer (Eds.), Handbook of heroism and heroic leadership. New York: Routledge.

Efthimiou, O. (2017). The hero organism: Advancing the embodiment of heroism thesis in the 21st century. In S. T. Allison, G. R. Goethals, & R. M. Kramer (Eds.), Handbook of heroism and heroic leadership. New York: Routledge.

Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. (2017). Social cognition: From brains to culture. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Franco, Z. E., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2006). The banality of heroism. Greater Good, 3, 30-35.

Franco, Z. E., Blau, K., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2011). Heroism: A conceptual analysis and differentiation between heroic action and altruism. Review of General Psychology, 15, 99-113.

Goethals, G. R. & Allison, S. T. (2012). Making heroes: The construction of courage, competence and virtue. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 183-235.

Goethals, G. R., & Allison, S. T. (2019). The romance of heroism and heroic leadership: Ambiguity, attribution, and apotheosis. West Yorkshire: Emerald.

Kinsella E. L., Ritchie T. D., Igou E. R. (2015a). Zeroing in on heroes: A prototype analysis of hero features. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 108(1), 114–127.

Rankin, L. E., & Eagly, A. H. (2008). Is his heroism hailed and hers hidden? Women, men, and the social construction of heroism. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32(4), 414–422.

Sun, Y., Kinsella, E. L., & Igou, E. R. (2023). On cultural differences of heroes: Evidence from individualistic and collectivistic cultures. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin.

“Heroism Illiteracy”: An Alarming Sign of Cultural Decline

Commentary and Analysis, ,

This post is based on the following chapter in the Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies:

  • Allison, S. T. (2024). Hero Illiteracy. In S. T. Allison, J. K. Beggan, and G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies. New York: Springer.

By Scott T. Allison

Heroism Illiteracy refers to our society’s lack of understanding about the nature of heroism. This type of illiteracy affects individuals, groups, and the general public, leading to confusion in distinguishing true heroes from villains. Heroism Illiteracy often involves the mistaken belief that wealth, fame, or celebrity status defines heroism, rather than simply being associated with it.

There are grave dangers associated with Heroism Illiteracy. The inability of citizens to distinguish true heroes from pseudo-heroes endangers society by allowing the elevation of unworthy or even harmful figures to positions of influence, undermining ethical leadership, distorting values, and weakening collective moral judgment.

We all know that heroes play a crucial role in society, contributing significantly to the well-being of individuals and the public. Heroes do great good in offering hope, inspiration, unification, healing, solutions to problems, protection, guidance, emotional support, and a sense of purpose.

Given their importance, one might expect widespread agreement on who qualifies as a hero and who does not. However, such consensus is often lacking, particularly when it comes to evaluating the heroism of political figures and celebrities in popular culture.

In short, Heroism Illiteracy describes our widespread maladaptive ignorance about heroism, and about who deserves the status of a hero.

Heroism Illiteracy has several symptoms:

  1. The inability to define heroism
  2. The inability to recognize the names and contributions of significant cultural heroes
  3. The tendency to confuse heroes with villains, or vice versa
  4. The tendency to assign the status of hero to people who are merely rich or famous
  5. The inability to assign the status of hero to people who perform actual heroic deeds

While often used to describe an individual’s lack of understanding of heroism, the term can also apply to groups or entire societies. Various factors contribute to hero illiteracy, including inadequate socialization, ignorance of heroism in peers and parents, educational priorities that overlook true heroism, excessive exposure to harmful media, limited encounters with genuine heroes, or a general disinterest in the subject.

The Causes of Heroism Illiteracy

Let’s delve into why Heroism Illiteracy is so rampant.

First, people have different beliefs, values, and perspectives shaped by their experiences, culture, and social context. What one person considers heroic, another may see as villainous, and vice versa. Our subjective lenses can influence how we perceive and interpret the actions and motivations of individuals.

Second, there is complexity and nuance in heroism. Heroes can have flaws, and villains can have redeeming qualities. People may struggle to make clear-cut distinctions because the reality of human behavior and motivations is rarely black and white. It requires careful consideration of context and a subtle understanding of the actions and intentions of individuals.

Third, media portrayals, storytelling, and biased narratives can shape public perceptions and influence how people perceive heroes and villains. Our media tends to simplify and sensationalize stories, leading to the distortion of nuanced realities and the portrayal of individuals as either heroes or villains based on specific agendas or biases.

Fourth, people may not have access to all the relevant information or have limited perspectives, which can lead to incomplete assessments. This process is especially relevant given the prevalence of “cancel culture,” where a past indiscretion or inappropriate comment on a social media platform can cause a retroactive, public reevaluation of a person’s positive attributes or achievements.

Finally, our societal values and norms evolve over time. What may have been considered heroic or villainous in the past might be perceived differently in the present. Moral standards can vary across cultures and generations, leading to differing interpretations of heroic and villainous behavior.

Combatting Heroism Illiteracy

Heroism Illiteracy can be costly to society. The costs are an erosion of ethical standard, a lack of positive role models, a decline in our well-being, and an erosion of trust in public figures, and a diminished hope for the future.

How do we combat Heroism Illiteracy? Here are several things we can do:

  1. Parents and educators can do more to promote critical thinking skills.
  2. We can all learn more about the actual definition of heroism, and about what doing great good actually means.
  3. We can encourage a more loving worldview of heroism that emphasizes empathy and perspective-taking, in place of society’s view of heroism as the ability to wield power, self-promote, and acquire riches.
  4. We can promote media literacy to help people navigate biased narratives and misinformation.
  5. We should children about historical and contemporary heroes from different walks of life, including activists, humanitarians, scientists, artists, and community leaders.
  6. We can encourage community engagement and volunteer work, thereby fostering a sense of empathy and inspiring people to become agents of positive change.
  7. We can promote more critical dialogue and debate to help sharpen people’s judgments, challenge biases, and foster a deeper understanding of the qualities that define heroes.

Reducing Heroism Illiteracy should produce significant societal benefits. We can elect better, more humane, and more qualified political leaders. Moreover, we can restore social justice by giving more credit, recognition, and financial compensation to true heroes, such as teachers, emergency personnel, and healthcare workers, rather than to pseudo-heroes such as rich celebrities and charismatic politicians.

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Yuval Noah Harari, Angela Lansbury, and Things Hidden in Plain Sight

Commentary and Analysis, , , ,

By Scott T. Allison

In his recent book Nexus, philosopher Yuval Noah Harari observes that modern humans have access to more information than ever before, yet “it doesn’t seem that all this information has given us answers to the big questions of life: Who are we? What should we aspire to? What is a good life and how should we live it?” (Harari, 2024, p. xi).

This is an odd statement, perhaps even alarming. How do we not know who we are or what a good life is? Human beings have been aware of the key components of “a good life” for many thousands of years. In antiquity, literary classics and entire philosophical traditions were built around these components.

The answers have been hiding in plain sight for millennia. Every day we are bombarded with pointers about how to live our best lives.

Stories as Vast Reservoirs of Wisdom

Everything we need to know about living a meaningful life and becoming our best selves can be found in good storytelling. The vast majority of people grow up hearing stories, reading stories, or watching stories. In Europe or North America, fairy tales from Bambi to Hansel and Gretel offer recipes to children about how best to live our lives.

As much as they need nutritious food, adults need good stories, too. Consider the Epic of Gilgamesh, composed over 4,000 years ago. Gilgamesh was a mighty but arrogant king who befriends a wild man named Enkidu. When Enkidu dies as punishment from the gods, a grief-stricken Gilgamesh embarks on a futile quest for immortality. Ultimately, Gilgamesh is humbled and transformed into accepting his mortality and finding meaning in his life.

Gilgamesh teaches us that the key to a good life resides in understanding that suffering is transformative, that the material world is fleeting, that friendships sustain us, that nature and humility are essential, and that legacy is found in meaningful actions.

These same life lessons have been imparted to us through the telling of countless stories. You can choose almost any popular story, such as Hamlet, The Wizard of Oz, The Epic of Sunjata, The Great Gatsby, A Tale of Two Cities, the Bhagavad Gita, Harry Potter, Star Wars, and countless other tales.

In all these stories, heroes go on a journey of self-discovery and metamorphosis. We are drawn to these stories because they all call us to go on the same journey as these heroes. We love Harry Potter, Jane Eyre, and Mulan because each one of us is that same awkward underdog who must discover their hidden talents and blossom into someone who does great good in the world.

All our favorite stories, both ancient and modern, point to what comprises a good human life. Painful things happen to us that challenge us and force us to seek help from others. We are humbled into healing, learning, and growing into our best selves. We then give back to others.

Wisdom Hidden in Plain Sight

So then why does Yuval Noah Harari write that modern humans have little understanding of who we are and how we should live? The answers we seek are in plain sight, revealed in every good story we’ve ever encountered in novels, plays, movies, and television.

Most people make the mistake of believing they read and watch stories with the goal of being entertained. The deeper reason is that stories exist to convey wisdom about how to best live a purpose-filled life. The authors of those stories are our mentors, imploring us to use our suffering to grow into resilient, resourceful, caring human beings who make a positive difference in this world.

I’m reminded of the late, great Angela Lansbury, who sang the wonderful theme song to Beauty and the Beast. The opening line is, “Tale as Old as Time,” a clear reference to ancient story patterns that connect us to the wisdom of deep time.

Yuval Noah Harari makes the point that modern humans are overwhelmed with information yet starved for wisdom. Perhaps the solution is to put away our smartphones and begin reading and gleaning insights about life from good stories.

References

Campbell, J. (1949). The hero with a thousand faces. New York: New World Library.

Harari, Y. N. (2024). Nexus: A brief history of information networks from the stone age to AI. New York: Random House.