This post is based on the following chapter in the Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies:

• Allison, S. T. (2023). Home and the Hero’s Journey.  In S. T. Allison, J. K. Beggan, and G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies. New York: Springer.

By Scott T. Allison

Joseph Campbell’s (1949) concept of the mythic hero’s journey starts and ends at home. In the beginning, home represents the safe, familiar, and ordinary world where the hero lives in apparent ease and comfort. Unaware of their need for growth, heroes embark on a challenging journey that pushes them to realize their full potential. This journey transforms the hero, who then returns home with a new perspective and offers a boon or gift that brings positive transformative change to their community.

There’s No Place Like Home

The hero’s journey consists of three key stages: Departure, Initiation, and Return. One of the most iconic films of the 20th century, The Wizard of Oz, tells the story of a young girl, Dorothy Gale, who is uprooted from her home and faces numerous challenges in her quest to return. In his analysis of the film, David Smith (2014) delves into the deeper meaning of its famous catchphrase, “There is no place like home.” While commonly understood to mean that home is the best place to be, the phrase can be interpreted more literally to suggest that “home” isn’t a physical location at all. If home is “no place,” then what is it?

Dorothy Gale comes to understand what home truly means, but only after embarking on an extraordinary adventure in a strange land. Or did she? As revealed at the end of the film, Dorothy never physically traveled anywhere. During a severe storm, she hit her head, lost consciousness, and hallucinated the entire journey through the land of Oz. Dorothy’s “journey home” was actually an interior journey, not a physical one.

Like many aspects of the hero’s journey, “home” can have both a literal meaning and various symbolic or metaphorical interpretations. Home can indeed be a physical place, and many hero stories involve traveling to unfamiliar and transformative locations. However, alongside this physical journey, there is always a corresponding psychological journey for the hero. Before leaving the land of Oz to return to Kansas, Dorothy is asked by the Scarecrow what she has learned. She responds, “If I ever go looking for my heart’s desire again, I won’t look any further than my own backyard. Because if it isn’t there, I never really lost it to begin with.”

Dorothy’s deepest wish was always to return home, and she discovers that home was within her all along. When she realizes that her heart’s desire is in her own backyard, Dorothy acknowledges that there is truly no “place” like home. She comes to understand that her home in Kansas was never the ultimate destination of her journey.

She learns that home has two key aspects: it is the deepest desire of your heart, and it is a quality that you always carry within yourself. In essence, home represents the ideal of being fully and completely “in place.” To be “in place” means becoming entirely who you are meant to be — your best self, your transformed self, your most heroic self.

What often prevents us from feeling completely “in place” is usually a major personal shortcoming that hinders our true potential or an unresolved past trauma that needs to be addressed and healed. Overcoming this inner issue requires embarking on a profound internal journey, much like the one Dorothy experienced. This is the ultimate goal of the hero’s journey, a journey that paradoxically leads us away from home so that we can truly find it.

Examples of Heroes Finding Home

We can also observe that most heroes in film and literature share Dorothy’s goal: to achieve their deepest desire. However, they may not initially realize that reaching this external goal requires an inward journey first. For instance, Luke Skywalker must find the Force within himself before he can defeat the Galactic Empire, just as Dorothy needs to embark on her internal journey before physically returning home. Similarly, in the animated musical Frozen, Elsa embarks on an external journey that ultimately leads her to understand the power of love and self-acceptance. Through this journey, she discovers the strength of her bond with her sister, Anna, and the true nature of her powers.

The movie Erin Brockovich depicts a woman’s external journey of collecting evidence against a powerful corporation. Through her persistence and dedication to justice, Erin uncovers her inner strength and a sense of purpose in advocating for the community’s rights. These films highlight strong and resilient heroes who confront challenges in the external world while discovering important truths about their deepest desires along the way.

Most of us rarely consider our life journeys as leading us back home, yet home is the ultimate destination for nearly all forms of life. A plant emerges from the ground and eventually returns to it. Every animal experiences complete union with its mother before being born or hatched, and once that connection is broken, we tend to long for it, need it, and seek to reestablish it before we can fully engage in our outward endeavors.

This desire for home could be considered our biological and psychological imperative, but perhaps the best way to describe it is as our heroic imperative. We all leave home and eventually return, sometimes in a literal sense but always internally—just like Dorothy Gale, Harry Potter, Snow White, Odysseus, and countless others, both in fiction and in real life. Returning home is always the goal in hero stories, and it is a common theme throughout the natural world as well. Think of bird migrations, salmon swimming upstream, or lost dogs traveling long distances to find home. Returning home is the ultimate goal of all life.

We Already Have What We Seek

Perhaps the most remarkable lesson about home that we can learn from the hero’s journey is that the qualities we most need and desire from home are always within us, even if we aren’t aware of them. Recall Dorothy’s realization that her heart’s desire was always in her backyard. Glinda the Good Witch tells Dorothy, “You’ve always had the power to go back to Kansas.” When the Scarecrow asks why Glinda didn’t tell Dorothy this earlier, Glinda replies, “Because she wouldn’t have believed me. She had to learn it for herself.” This is the idea of heroic autonomy (Allison 2023).

Dorothy always had the power to return home, but she needed to realize it through her own experiences and self-discovery. This revelation emphasizes the importance of self-awareness and recognizing the potential within oneself. It underscores the transformative nature of her journey, where she not only found her way back home but also learned that she didn’t need to search outwardly to find it. The key to fulfilling her deepest desire was within her all along.

We are faced with the irony that heroes must embark on a challenging journey to obtain something they already possess. For countless millennia, spiritual teachers, from Rumi (2004) to Eckhart Tolle (2004), have been telling us that the secret to becoming our best, most heroic selves lies within us. Stories and fairy tales like The Ugly Duckling, Cinderella, and The Little Mermaid all convey the message that each of us holds the key to our own salvation. Glinda’s wisdom as a mentor was understanding that heroes must uncover this truth for themselves.

The Return stage symbolizes the hero’s reintegration into society after their transformative journey. In this phase, the hero brings back the knowledge, wisdom, or treasure they gained to benefit their community or the world. Here, “home” becomes a symbolic concept, representing the point of arrival where the hero returns to their ordinary world or community, which may have changed during their absence. The hero’s ultimate goal is not just to return to the physical place they left but to reintegrate and create positive change in their home or society.

Campbell emphasized that the hero’s return can be challenging, as they may face resistance or disbelief from those who did not experience the same transformative journey. The hero must reconcile their newfound knowledge and growth with the familiar environment and relationships they left behind. This phase often involves the hero sharing their wisdom, inspiring others, and using their experiences to bring positive change to their community. In Campbell’s hero’s journey, “home” represents more than just a physical location. It signifies the hero’s reconnection with their roots, community, and sense of belonging. It underscores the hero’s role as a catalyst for change and their responsibility to contribute to the well-being and growth of their society.

A common theme in all human lives and storytelling is the temporal pattern of order-disorder-reorder. Initially, home is a safe, familiar, and orderly place, but eventually, it no longer meets the hero’s needs. An event occurs that thrusts the hero into a chaotic, painful, and disordered experience, compelling them to undergo significant inner change and growth. The hero then arrives at a new “home,” representing a reordered reality that may resemble the old one but is fundamentally different in crucial ways. This order-disorder-reorder pattern has been expressed in various forms: construction-deconstruction-reconstruction, fall-winter-spring, Eden-Fall-Paradise, life-trauma-PTG, thesis-antithesis-synthesis, solution-dissolution-resolution, life-crucifixion-resurrection, caterpillar-cocoon-butterfly, and many others. It is the universal pattern of nature and the pervasive pattern of healthy human development (Rohr 2020).

Heroes often resist what is good for them, which is why many are forced to leave home against their will. People can be highly resistant to life-changing transformations for various reasons, with fear being the primary one. Change often brings uncertainty, and the unknown can be intimidating. People may feel comfortable with the familiar and resist change because they fear the potential negative outcomes or disruptions it might bring. The fear of the unknown can lead people to prefer staying in familiar territory rather than exploring unfamiliar possibilities. There is also a fear of failure—change involves taking risks and stepping into the unknown, which can trigger anxiety about failure. We may resist change because we worry about making mistakes, facing negative consequences, or not being able to handle the new situation. This fear of failure can cause us to avoid change and remain in our current circumstances rather than confront potential challenges or setbacks.

Conclusion

In the hero’s journey, “returning home” carries deep psychological significance as it symbolizes the completion of the transformative process and the incorporation of the hero’s newfound wisdom and growth into their daily life. The hero has come full circle, evolving from a naïve individual, lacking qualities necessary for becoming their true self, into a transformed hero who is self-confident, resourceful, courageous, resilient, and wise. The hero’s journey involves not only external adventures but also an inner journey of self-discovery and personal growth.

In the hero’s journey, “returning home” ultimately symbolizes more than just a physical return; it signifies an emotional and psychological homecoming. It reflects a deep transformation, reconciliation with the past, and the hero’s readiness to embrace their evolved self and life purpose. For the hero, and for all of us who dare to undertake the challenging hero’s journey, there truly is no place like home.

References

Allison, S. T. (2023). Heroic autonomy. In S. T. Allison, J. K. Beggan, & G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies. New York: Springer.

Allison, S. T., Goethals, G. R., Marrinan, A. R., Parker, O. M., Spyrou, S. P., Stein, M. (2019). The metamorphosis of the hero: Principles, processes, and purpose. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 606.

Campbell, J. (1949). The hero with a thousand faces. New York: New World Library.

Jung, C. G. (1968). Man and his symbols. Des Moines: Turtleback.

Rohr, R. (2020). The wisdom pattern. Cincinnati: Franciscan Media.

Rumi (2004). The essential Rumi. New York: Harper.

Smith, D. L. (2014). “There’s no place like home”: An American koan. Journal of Religion & Popular Culture, 26 (3), 287-292.

Tolle, E. (2004). The power of now. New York: New World Library.

This post is based on the following chapter in the Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies:

• Allison, S. T. (2023). Red Bike Moment. In S. T. Allison, J. K. Beggan, and G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies. New York: Springer.

By Scott T. Allison

The Red Bike Moment is the most pivotal, life-changing event in a person’s life. The crucial event is usually a loss or failure that marks the beginning of the transition from an ordinary person into a hero.

The phrase “Red Bike Moment” comes from a life-changing incident in the life of Muhammad Ali, the iconic heavyweight boxing champion of the 1960s and 70s. When Ali, then known as Cassius Clay, was 12 years old, his red Schwinn bicycle was stolen. After reporting the theft to the police, young Cassius told Officer Joe Elsby Martin that he intended to find and confront the thief. Martin, who also ran a local gym, suggested that Cassius learn how to fight before seeking revenge. Following this advice, Cassius embarked on a journey that would not only make him a legendary boxer but also a global hero, philanthropist, and goodwill ambassador for millions.

Despite its name, the Red Bike Moment can unfold over days, weeks, or even months. Typically, this involves a crisis that leads to emotional turmoil such as sadness or anger. During this time, a mentor or helper appears at just the right moment, offering exactly the guidance the hero needs. A key aspect of this moment is the fortunate and timely arrival of this helper, coupled with the hero’s ability to recognize and seize this opportunity. Following the mentor’s advice, the hero takes decisive action, transitioning from a passive victim to an active participant in shaping their future heroic journey.

Four Components of the Red Bike Moment

There are four components of the Red Bike Moment: (1) a setback that occurs early in the hero’s life; (2) a deficiency in the hero that the hero appears powerless to resolve; (3) a mentor who arrives to help the hero; and (4) the strategic use of luck, an often overlooked factor contributing to the success of the hero on their journey.

1. The Setback

All Red Bike Moments begin with a loss, failure, disaster, illness, or some other significant setback. For young Cassius Clay, it was the theft of his red Schwinn bicycle. Psychology research shows that people take actions to prevent future bad events by restoring order, control, and predictability in their environment (Taylor & Fiske 2017). Thus the Red Bike Moment represents a natural and healthy response to adversity.

There are many significant examples of Red Bike Moments in the lives of heroes. Oprah Winfrey endured years of abuse as a child and became pregnant at age 14. When her baby tragically died shortly after birth, Oprah was devastated. Her father, Vernon Winfrey, provided her with the crucial support she needed by telling her, “This is your second chance. This is your opportunity to seize this moment and make something of your life.” This encouragement motivated Oprah to transform her life. She became an honors student, joined her school’s speech team, entered (and won) a beauty pageant, and secured a job at a local radio station. This marked the beginning of Oprah’s heroic journey.

After rising to fame as a country rock star, Johnny Cash became addicted to alcohol and prescription drugs. His addictions led to numerous arrests for drunken and disorderly behavior, and he came close to death several times. Following yet another arrest in Georgia in October 1967, Sheriff Ralph Jones had a deep and meaningful conversation with Cash, highlighting how he was destroying his life and what he needed to do to get sober. Cash later credited Jones with helping him turn his life around (Hilburn 2014).

In fiction, many iconic heroic characters experience memorable Red Bike Moments. In The Wizard of Oz, Dorothy survives a tornado and finds herself lost in a strange new world. She receives guidance from Glinda the Good Witch and shows determination in following Glinda’s advice. In It’s a Wonderful Life, George Bailey faces accusations of embezzlement and the threat of jail and disgrace. His guardian angel Clarence arrives at just the right moment, providing George with the insights he needs to avoid legal trouble and enjoy a happy, fulfilling life. Not all fictional Red Bike mentors are supernatural; in The Karate Kid, young Daniel LaRusso has a Red Bike Moment similar to that of young Cassius Clay. He must learn to defend himself, and he takes to heart the timeless wisdom imparted by his sensei, Mr. Miyagi.

2. The Deficient Hero

The Red Bike Moment happens when the hero is missing a crucial inner quality necessary for their growth into their best self. At this point in their lives, heroes are often deficient because they are usually young and still in the early stages of their development. This deficiency could be moral, emotional, intellectual, spiritual, physical, or motivational (Allison, Goethals, and Kramer 2017). For instance, Cassius Clay lacked physical skills, Oprah Winfrey lacked motivation, and Johnny Cash had a spiritual deficit. Dorothy and George Bailey both lacked important understanding of what “home” truly means. Daniel LaRusso not only needed to develop physical skills but also required moral, motivational, and spiritual guidance.

3. The Mentor

Mentors typically possess a special kind of authority, whether through their appearance or reputation, which gives them the credibility to be taken seriously by the hero during a time of need. Both Muhammad Ali and Johnny Cash required the guidance of police officers to embark on their heroic paths. Oprah’s father also had a significant level of authority. In fiction, a mentor’s authority often stems from their exotic or otherworldly nature. For example, Yoda in Star Wars, Jiminy Cricket in Pinocchio, Glinda in The Wizard of Oz, and Clarence in It’s a Wonderful Life all have an air of the extraordinary. While Mr. Miyagi in The Karate Kid wasn’t a supernatural figure, the film used his Asian heritage to imbue him with a mysterious and authoritative presence within the story’s context.

4. The Strategic Use of Luck

Scholars of heroism often tend to overlook or minimize the role that luck plays in a hero’s success on their journey. While it’s uncomfortable to think that heroism might depend on chance, and indeed it largely doesn’t, as heroes must make deliberate choices and take actions that drive their journeys forward, it’s also important not to ignore the influence of serendipity. Heroes often benefit from a fortuitous meeting with the right person, in the right place, and at the right time. Luck in a hero’s journey can often be categorized into these three elements: person, place, and time.

Consider what would have happened if young Cassius Clay had reported his stolen bike to a different officer instead of Joe Martin. Only Martin was in the unique position to direct Clay to the gym for boxing lessons. Similarly, Johnny Cash met the ideal law enforcement officer in Ralph Jones, and Daniel LaRusso found the perfect mentor in Mr. Miyagi. Location also plays a role in luck. Bill Gates and Steve Jobs may have transformed the computer industry, but imagine their chances of doing so if they had been born in Slovenia or Indonesia instead of the USA. Likewise, Martin Luther King Jr. might never have become a civil rights leader if he had not been born in the southeastern USA, where racial equality conflicts were reaching a boiling point.

Timing plays a critical role as well. In the film Cast Away, Tom Hanks’ character, Chuck Noland, is eventually rescued after being stranded on a South Pacific island for years. His luck came in the form of a random freight ship that spotted his rudderless, makeshift raft. Although it seemed like pure chance, Franco (2017) suggests that heroes often use luck strategically. In desperate situations, they make decisions that shift their chances of success from zero to just above zero. Noland’s stroke of luck came when a port-o-potty washed ashore, which he creatively used to build his raft. While luck was involved in the arrival of the debris and the ship’s sighting, Noland’s resourcefulness and actions played a significant role in creating that opportunity. This illustrates the wisdom in the saying that “luck is the residue of design.”

In his book Outliers, Malcom Gladwell (2008) presented evidence that some of the world’s greatest icons have relied on luck, probably unknowingly, to achieve their immense success. Both Bill Gates and Steve Jobs were born in the mid-1950s, allowing them to reach young adulthood at exactly the time that the personal computer revolution was unfolding. Had they been ten years younger, or ten years older, the timing would likely have precluded their ability to exert a heroic impact on the world.

Franco (2017) references Ralph Waldo Emerson’s saying that “Good luck is another name for tenacity of purpose” (Emerson, 1888). While heroes may experience luck, they often create their own opportunities. Chuck Noland took a risk with his makeshift raft. Oprah was driven by her father’s encouragement to focus on her education and career. In the film Casablanca, Victor Lazlo’s fortunate escape from Casablanca largely depended on the complicated relationship between his wife, Ilsa, and Rick Blaine. Lazlo could have ruined his chances by reacting with jealousy, but instead, he used emotional intelligence to let a series of favorable events unfold. This demonstrates that what seems like luck often involves the convergence of fortunate circumstances with some form of heroic intelligence or strategy. This blend of luck and strategy perfectly encapsulates young Cassius Clay’s Red Bike Moment.

Conclusion

The Red Bike Moment serves as a pivotal catalyst for a heroic transformation. It involves the convergence of various events in time and space that initiate the metamorphosis of an ordinary individual into a hero. There appear to be different forms of the Red Bike Moment, depending on the nature of the setback and the type of transformation it triggers. For instance, in 1980, Candice Lightner’s daughter was tragically killed by a drunk driver, prompting Lightner to establish Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD). Her response to this loss was undeniably heroic, though it seems qualitatively different from Cassius Clay’s reaction to the theft of his bike. Future research could explore the distinctions among different types of Red Bike Moments.

Not every person is guaranteed a Red Bike Moment, and countless individuals may never have the opportunity due to their circumstances. However, some very fortunate people might experience multiple Red Bike Moments. For instance, Johnny Cash had the advantage of his wife, June Carter, stepping in repeatedly to support him during his darkest, most addictive times. Oprah Winfrey acknowledges the many people who have helped her at various challenging stages in her life, as does environmental activist Greta Thunberg. The Muhammad Ali Center in Louisville offers its visitors a valuable experience by encouraging them to reflect on their past for Red Bike Moments, aiming to help them appreciate these moments and better navigate potential future transformative experiences.

References

 Allison, S. T., Goethals, G. R., & Kramer, R. M. (Eds.) (2017). Handbook of heroism and heroic leadership. New York: Routledge.

Campbell, J. (1949). The hero with a thousand faces. New York: New World Library.

Emerson, R. W. (1888). Select Writings of Ralph Waldo Emerson (Vol. 33): London: W. Scott.

Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. (2017). Social cognition: From brains to culture. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Franco, Z. (2017). Heroism during crisis: Understanding leadership during extreme events. In S. T. Allison, G. R. Goethals, & R. M. Kramer (Eds.), Handbook of heroism and heroic leadership. New York: Routledge.

Gladwell, M. (2008). Outliers. New York: Back Bay Books.

Hilburn, R. (2014). Johnny Cash: The life. New York: Back Bay Books.

This post is based on the following chapter in the Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies:

• Allison, S. T. (2023). Definitions and descriptions of heroism. In S. T. Allison, J. K. Beggan, and G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies. New York: Springer.

By Scott T. Allison

In his groundbreaking 1949 book, The Hero with a Thousand Faces, Joseph Campbell built the foundation of contemporary heroism studies. Campbell boldly suggested that society’s understanding of heroism stems from a collective mythological consciousness shaped by ancient heroic narratives. He redefined heroism as a transformative journey, common across global storytelling, where individuals leave familiar settings, face trials, and return with wisdom to share.

Campbell emphasized that a hero is inseparable from their journey and its purpose, symbolizing a latent spiritual and redemptive force within everyone. He asserted that “the hero is symbolical of that divine creative and redemptive image which is hidden within us all, only waiting to be rendered into life.”

Campbell’s description above includes eight key elements that he believed were essential for understanding the essence of a hero. These elements are:

(1) the symbolic nature of the hero’s journey

(2) the divine or spiritual aspects of the journey

(3) the creative side of heroism

(4) the redemptive component of heroism

(5) the central role of imagery in guiding the hero

(6) the hidden features of the hero’s inner journey

(7) the waiting that is required for the journey to unfold naturally

(8) the life-giving qualities of the journey

Let’s look at each of these in turn.

1. Symbolic nature of the journey. Campbell viewed the hero as “symbolical,” meaning that the archetypal hero in mythological stories was a representation of something deeply important, such as the human capacity for courage, strength, and self-sacrifice. The hero is therefore a metaphor for ideals that are greater and beyond the individual person. Later, in his Bill Moyers’ interviews, Campbell (1988, 167) expanded on this idea and gave a succinct definition of a hero: “A hero is someone who has given his or her life to something bigger than oneself.” The hero is a personification of an ideal, a transcendent principle of human life.

2. Divine or spiritual aspects of the journey. Campbell viewed the hero’s journey as a quest for connection with the transcendent or divine. The hero encounters supernatural beings, mentors, or experiences that symbolize higher spiritual forces, guiding them toward self-realization and a deeper cosmic understanding. Through trials and challenges, the hero gains revelations that bring them closer to sacred truths. Many hero myths include a quest for immortality or transcendence, reflecting human desires for a higher, eternal state.

3. Creative side of heroism. Campbell saw heroism as a creative process that involves self-discovery, transformation, and the integration of various elements into a new whole. The hero’s journey includes trials that require innovative thinking and creative problem-solving, a concept reflected in Franco and Zimbardo’s “heroic imagination.” Overcoming significant challenges leads to profound personal transformation, confronting fears, and achieving growth and self-awareness. Moments of revelation and insight during the journey are driven by creative thinking and self-reflection, making heroism akin to the creative act of reinventing oneself.

4. Redemptive component of heroism. Campbell viewed redemption as a crucial aspect of heroism, seeing the journey as a metaphor for the human experience. He believed that individuals often feel a sense of incompletion or “fallenness,” and the hero’s journey represents the path to rediscovering wholeness and transcendence. Redemption can involve atoning for past wrongs, healing from trauma, or overcoming personal shortcomings. Campbell considered redemption a vital step towards self-actualization and self-realization, essential for completing the hero’s journey.

5. Central role of imagery in guiding the hero. Campbell believed that images and symbols play a crucial role in guiding the hero’s psychological and spiritual development during their journey. These images convey deeper meanings, archetypal patterns, and universal truths that resonate with the human psyche. The hero encounters symbols representing various stages of the journey, such as crossing thresholds, facing dragons, or obtaining magical objects. Mentors and guides often appear in imagery, offering wisdom and support. Visual symbols also depict the hero’s symbolic death and rebirth, enhancing the audience’s connection to the hero’s transformation and growth.

6. Hidden features of the hero’s inner journey. Campbell highlighted that the hero’s psychological journey is more significant than the physical one. He believed that the hero’s external challenges symbolize internal conflicts and struggles. For instance, battling a dragon might symbolize confronting personal fears or destructive tendencies, while crossing a body of water could represent overcoming fears or subconscious desires. The hero’s physical journey serves as a metaphor for their inner psychological and emotional transformation.

7. Waiting and patience needed for the journey to unfold naturally. Campbell suggested that timing within the hero’s journey is important. The journey involves a particular ordering of stages that cannot be rushed or ignored. Waiting is part of the hero-forming process. Each stage represents a particular psychological process that the hero must undergo for inner transformation to occur. If heroes rush through these stages, they may not fully integrate the insights and learnings that each stage provides. Campbell cautioned that ignoring or skipping certain stages can be dangerous because it can leave the hero incomplete or unfulfilled.

8. Life-giving qualities of the journey. Campbell explained that the hero is “rendered into life” after completing their journey. This journey symbolizes an inner psychological transformation, moving from one state to a more enriched and mature one. The hero must experience a form of spiritual death and rebirth, reflecting a universal theme where death leads to new life. By leaving their ordinary life and confronting challenges, the hero undergoes profound growth, ultimately experiencing the richness and “rapture associated with being alive,” which Campbell often referred to as bliss.

Overall, Joseph Campbell revolutionized our understanding of heroism by showing how the hero’s journey — also the human journey — is the pathway to self-discovery and personal transformation. Campbell believed the journey represents the quest for a deeper understanding of one’s place in the universe, highlighting themes of death and rebirth as essential for achieving enlightenment and wholeness. Campbell’s insights into the psychological and spiritual aspects of this journey continue to inspire 21^st century heroism scholars.

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Below is a partial listing of heroism-related phenomena discovered by Dr. Scott T. Allison’s research lab from 2005 to the present day.

1. The Death Positivity Bias – 2005

DEFINITION: The tendency of people to evaluate the dead more favorably than the living. This is one way we “heroize” people.

Allison, S. T., & Eylon, D. (2005). The demise of leadership: Death positivity biases in posthumous impressions of leaders. In D. Messick & R. Kramer (Eds.), The Psychology of Leadership: New Perspectives and Research (pp 295-317). New York: Erlbaum.

Allison, S. T. (2024). Death positivity bias and heroism. In S. T. Allison, J. K. Beggan, and G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies. New York: Springer.

2. The Frozen in Time Effect – 2005

DEFINITION: People’s tendency to resist changing their impressions of dead heroes compared to living heroes.

Eylon, D., & Allison, S. T. (2005). The frozen in time effect in evaluations of the dead. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 1708-1717.

Allison, S. T. (2024). Frozen in time effect and heroism. In S. T. Allison, J. K. Beggan, and G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies. New York: Springer.

3. The Underdog Abandonment Effect – 2008

DEFINITION: The tendency of people to no longer root for underdog heroes when both their success has low self-relevance and low consequences.

Kim, J., Allison, S. T., Eylon, D., Goethals, G., Markus, M., McGuire, H., & Hindle, S. (2008). Rooting for (and then Abandoning) the Underdog. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 38, 2550-2573.

4. The Great Eight Traits of Heroes – 2011

DEFINITION: The discovery that people believe that heroes possess the traits of wise, strong, charismatic, caring, resilient, reliable, selfless, and inspiring.

Allison, S. T., & Goethals, G. R. (2011). Heroes: What they do and why we need them. New York: Oxford University Press.

5. Social Influence Based Taxonomy of Heroism – 2012

DEFINITION: The scientific identification of heroes as Transforming, Transfigured, Traditional, Transparent, Transposed, Tragic, Transitional, Transitory, Trending, and Transcendent.

Allison, S. T., & Goethals, G. R. (2013). Heroic leadership: An influence taxonomy of 100 exceptional individuals. New York: Routledge.

6. The Heroic Leadership Dynamic – 2014

DEFINITION: A system of psychological forces that can explain how humans are drawn to heroes, how they benefit from these heroes and their stories, and how heroic tales help people become heroes themselves.

Allison, S. T., & Goethals, G. R. (2014). “Now he belongs to the ages”: The heroic leadership dynamic and deep narratives of greatness. In Goethals, G. R., et al. (Eds.), Conceptions of leadership: Enduring ideas and emerging insights. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

7. Epistemic and Energizing Functions of Heroism – 2014

DEFINITION: The conceptualization of the functions of heroism that includes epistemological needs involving the imparting of wisdom and emerging needs involving healing, growing, and inspiration.

Allison, S. T., & Goethals, G. R. (2014). “Now he belongs to the ages”: The heroic leadership dynamic and deep narratives of greatness. In Goethals, G. R., et al. (Eds.), Conceptions of leadership: Enduring ideas and emerging insights. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

8. Need-Based Heroism (AKA The Johnny Carson Effect) – 2014

DEFINITION: The tendency of people’s current need states to determine their choice of heroes, with these need-states changing as a function of people’s developmental stages and their changing life circumstances. (named after Johnny Carson’s quip that after all his divorces, his hero changed from Babe Ruth to King Henry VIII)

Allison, S. T., & Goethals, G. R. (2016). Hero worship: The elevation of the human spirit. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 46, 187-210.

Allison, S. T. (2024). Need-based heroism. In S. T. Allison, J. K. Beggan, and G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies. New York: Springer.

9. Six Benefits of Suffering – 2016

DEFINITION: The identification of benefits of heroic suffering as offering (1) redemption, (2) developmental progress, (3) humility, (4) compassion, (5) social union, and (6) meaning and purpose.

Allison, S. T., & Setterberg, G. C. (2016). Suffering and sacrifice: Individual and collective benefits, and implications for leadership. In S. T. Allison, C. T. Kocher, & G. R. Goethals (Eds), Frontiers in spiritual leadership: Discovering the better angels of our nature. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Allison, S. T. (2024). Suffering of the hero. In S. T. Allison, J. K. Beggan, and G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies. New York: Springer.

10. Six Types of Heroic Transformation – 2017

DEFINITION: Six commons patterns of transformation in heroes that involve changes in their mental, emotional, physical, spiritual, moral, and motivational state.

Allison, S. T., Goethals, G. R., & Kramer, R. M. (2017). Setting the scene: The rise and coalescence of heroism science. In S. T. Allison, G. R. Goethals, & R. M. Kramer (Eds.), Handbook of heroism and heroic leadership. New York: Routledge.

Allison, S. T. (2024). Heroic transformation. In S. T. Allison, J. K. Beggan, and G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies. New York: Springer.

11. Three Heroic Transformative Arcs – 2017

DEFINITION: The tendency of heroes to transform from a state of egocentricity to sociocentricity; from dependence to autonomy; and from stagnation to growth.

Allison, S. T., & Goethals, G. R. (2017). The hero’s transformation. In S. T. Allison, G. R. Goethals, & R. M. Kramer (Eds.), Handbook of heroism and heroic leadership. New York: Routledge.

12. The Personal Heroic Imperative – 2018

DEFINITION: Each human being’s built-in mandate to fulfill their heroic imperative by imagining and creating their own heroic growth.

Efthimiou, O., Allison, S. T., & Franco, Z. E. (2018). Heroism and wellbeing in the 21^st century: Recognizing our personal heroic imperative. In O. Efthimiou, S. T. Allison, & Z. E. Franco (Eds.), Heroism and wellbeing in the 21st Century: Applied and emerging perspectives. New York: Routledge.

13. Transcendent and Trapped Immortality – 2018

DEFINITION: The tendency of people to perceive dead heroes and villains differently. Specifically, we believe deceased good-doers achieve transcendent immortality, with their souls persisting beyond space and time; and evil-doers to have trapped immortality, with their souls persisting on Earth, bound to a physical location.

Gray, K., Anderson, S., Doyle, C. M., Hester, N., Schmitt, P., Vonasch, A., Allison, S. T., and Jackson, J. C. (2018). To be immortal, do good or evil. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44, 868-880.

Allison, S. T. (2024). Transcendent immortality and heroism. In S. T. Allison, J. K. Beggan, and G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies. New York: Springer.

14. Heroic Lag – 2019

DEFINITION: The delay between the point in time when a hero first expresses their heroic message and when mainstream society adopts that message.

Goethals, G. R., & Allison, S. T. (2019). The romance of heroism and heroic leadership: Ambiguity, attribution, and apotheosis. West Yorkshire: Emerald.

Allison, S. T. (2024). Heroic lag. In S. T. Allison, J. K. Beggan, and G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies. New York: Springer.

15. Heroic Consciousness – 2019, 2024

DEFINITION: Heroic consciousness is a state of heightened awareness, reasoning, emotional experience, self-identity, intention, and will, all aimed at saving lives, pursuing a noble cause, and promoting the greater good.

Allison, S. T. (2019). Heroic consciousness. Heroism Science, 4, 1-43.

Allison, S. T. (2024). Heroic consciousness. In S. T. Allison, J. K. Beggan, and G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies. New York: Springer.

16. Seven Barriers to Heroic Transformation – 2019

DEFINITION: Seven ways people avoid heroic transformation: self-ignorance, impoverished environments, personal trauma, victim identification, absence of mentors, mental/physical illness, and lack of psychological flexibility.

Allison, S. T., Goethals, G. R., Marrinan, A. R., Parker, O. M., Spyrou, S. P., Stein, M. (2019). The metamorphosis of the hero: Principles, processes, and purpose. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 606.

17. Heroic Leadership Imperative – 2020

DEFINITION: The mandate of transforming heroic leaders to meet the individual, collective, and transcendent needs of their followers.

Allison, S. T. & Goethals, G. R. (2020). The heroic leadership imperative: How leaders inspire and mobilize change. West Yorkshire: Emerald.

18. Heroic Wholeness Imperative – 2020

DEFINITION: The mandate of leaders to promote psychological wholeness and well-being by meeting the higher-level transcendent needs of followers.

Allison, S. T. & Goethals, G. R. (2020). The heroic leadership imperative: How leaders inspire and mobilize change. West Yorkshire: Emerald.

19. The Hero Androgyny Phenomenon  — 2020

DEFINITION: The tendency of heroes to possess both masculine and feminine traits, i.e., agency plus communality.

Hoyt, C. L., Allison, S. T., Barnowski, A., & Sultan, A. (2020). Lay theories of heroism and leadership: The role of gender, communion, and agency. Social Psychology, 51, 381-395.

20. Puer Aeternus as an Obstacle to Heroism

DEFINITION: The Puer Aeternus complex describes an adult, often a man, who remains in an extended state of adolescence, exhibiting traits commonly associated with youth. The phenomenon represents a significant barrier to personal growth and heroism due to its characteristic evasion of the hero’s journey that transforms people into their best, most heroic selves.

Allison, S. T., Goethals, G. R., & Spyrou, S. P. (2020). Donald Trump as the archetypal puer aeternus: The psychology of mature and immature leadership. In K. Bezio & G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Leadership, populism, and resistance. Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar.

21. Heroic Autonomy  — 2021

DEFINITION: The imperative of the hero to perform the last and most crucial heroic act alone and independent from their friends and mentors.

Allison, S. T. (2021). Beth Harmon’s hero’s journey: The psychology of heroism in The Queen’s Gambit. Richmond: Palsgrove.

22. Heroic Balance  — 2021

DEFINITION: The ability of the hero to achieve a healthy life balance needed to achieve their heroic mission. Heroes needs to balance intuition with reason; emotion with logic; self-confidence with humility; autonomy with dependency; personal life with professional life; and more.

Allison, S. T. (2021). Beth Harmon’s hero’s journey: The psychology of heroism in The Queen’s Gambit. Richmond: Palsgrove.

23. Dynamic Negotiated Exchange Theory of Heroism –2022

DEFINITION: The dynamic negotiated exchange model of heroism refers to the processes by which the implicit exchange agreement between heroes and hero beneficiaries undergoes change. The change is often negotiated in response to a major crisis, such as the COVID pandemic of 2020-22.

Allison, S. T., & Beggan, J. K. (2022). The dynamic negotiated exchange model of heroism and heroic leadership: Lessons from the COVID-19 pandemic. Interdisciplinary Journal of Leadership Studies, 1, 15-31.

24. Motional Intelligence — 2023

DEFINITION: A form of kinesthetic intelligence that enables leaders to move the emotions of their followers. It is the ability of heroic (and villainous) leaders to use their body movements and voices effectively in a way that inspires and mobilizes followers.

Allison, S. T. (2023). Motional intelligence and leadership. In G. R. Goethals, S. T. Allison, & G. J. Sorenson (Eds.). The SAGE Encyclopedia of Leadership Studies. Sage: Thousand Oaks, CA.

25. Hero Illiteracy — 2023