Monthly Archives: May 2025

My Hero Roberto Clemente and the Night that Happiness Died

Sports Heroes

By Scott T. Allison

What is the recipe for heroism?  Because heroism is in the eye of the beholder, there is no set list of ingredients.  But research reveals that especially powerful and iconic heroes are perceived to possess at least a few of the following characteristics: (1) They have an exceptional talent; (2) They have a strong moral compass; (3) They incur significant risk; and (4) They make the ultimate sacrifice while helping others.

Roberto Clemente was one of those rare and extraordinary individuals who beautifully, and tragically, fit this mold of a great hero.  Today, nearly five decades after his untimely death, Clemente’s accomplishments, selflessness, and charisma make him an unforgettable hero.

It was the way he lived — and the way he died — that made Clemente an extraordinary individual.

Former major league baseball commissioner Bowie Kuhn once said of Clemente, “He had about him the touch of royalty.”  Duane Rieder, Director of the Clemente museum, said, “There was something about him that was magical.”

Dozens of schools, hospitals, parks, and baseball fields bear his name today. What did Clemente do to earn such veneration?

We won’t delve into many details of Clemente’s genius on the baseball field.  We will say that while playing for the Pittsburgh Pirates from 1955 to 1972, he won multiple batting titles, gold glove awards, world championships, and most valuable player awards.  He hit for average and he hit for power.  He possessed great speed and a rocket of a throwing arm.

Los Angeles Dodgers announcer Vin Scully once said, “Clemente could field a ball in New York and throw out a guy in Pennsylvania.”

People who knew Clemente argue that as great as he was a player, he was an even better human being.  When traveling from city to city as a player, he routinely visited sick children in local hospitals.  According to author David Maraniss, Clemente spent significant time in Latin American cities, where he would often walk the streets with a large bag of coins, searching out poor people.

Wrote Maraniss: “To the needy strangers he encountered in Managua, Clemente asked, “What’s your name? How many in your family?” Then he handed them coins, two or three or four, until his bag was empty.”

Clemente once said, “Any time you have an opportunity to make things better and you don’t, then you are wasting your time on this Earth.”

Clemente, a native Puerto Rican, also overcame significant adversity.  He grew up in poverty.  He faced discrimination, living in an era that tended to be intolerant of non-White, non-English speaking people.  Because baseball at the time was dominated by Willie Mays, Mickey Mantle, and Hank Aaron, Clemente was often overlooked in discussions of great athletes.  Clemente was also hampered throughout his career by chronic back and neck problems.  Yet he still managed to accumulate an exemplary record of achievement on the baseball field.

To this day, the manner in which Clemente died still brings people to tears.  In late December of 1972, he heard that Managua, Nicaragua, had been devastated by a massive earthquake.  Clemente immediately began arranging emergency relief flights from Puerto Rico.  He soon learned, however, that the aid packages on the first three flights never reached victims of the quake.  Apparently, corrupt officials had diverted those flights.  Clemente decided to accompany the fourth relief flight to ensure that the relief supplies would be delivered to the survivors.

The airplane he chartered for a New Year’s Eve flight, a Douglas DC-7, had a history of mechanical problems and was overloaded by 5,000 pounds.  Shortly after takeoff, the plane crashed into the ocean off the coast of Puerto Rico, killing the 38 year-old Clemente and three others.

News of Clemente’s death spread quickly.  In Puerto Rico, New Year’s Eve celebrations ground to a halt. “The streets were empty, the radios silent, except for news about Roberto,” said long-time friend Rudy Hernandez. “Traffic? Except for the road near Punta Maldonado, forget it. All of us cried. All of us who knew him and even those who didn’t wept that week.”

Nick Acosta, another friend, summed up the fateful night that Clemente died.  “It was the night the happiness died,” he said.

Check out this short video showcasing Clemente’s selfless heroism:


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Living the 12 Traditions: Building Better Relationships Through Al-Anon Principles

Blogroll

Tradition One Example

Here’s a simple, real-world example that shows Tradition One in action in a friendship:

Tradition One:

“Our common welfare should come first; personal progress for the greatest number depends on unity.”

Scenario:

Two friends, Alex and Jamie, planned to co-host a small gathering. Jamie often runs late and changes plans last-minute, which frustrates Alex. After a recent incident, Alex feels disrespected and wants to cancel future plans.

Applying Tradition One – “Our common welfare should come first; personal progress for the greatest number depends upon unity.”

1. Pause for Perspective

  • Alex remembers that the goal isn’t to “win” but to protect the friendship and their own peace.
  • Instead of cutting off Jamie, Alex takes time to calm down and consider what’s best for the relationship and their own well-being.

2. Have a Respectful, Honest Conversation

  • Alex says, “I really value our friendship, and I want us to keep enjoying our time together. But when plans change last-minute, I end up feeling anxious and overlooked.”
  • This prioritizes unity and mutual respect—not blame or control.

3. Create a Boundary That Supports Both

  • They agree on a new plan: Jamie will give a heads-up if they’re running late, and Alex will plan flexibly or set limits on certain commitments.
  • The relationship is preserved and both people feel heard and respected.

Outcome:

Instead of focusing on being right or giving up on the relationship, they worked toward unity by being honest, setting respectful boundaries, and focusing on what’s best for both of them.

Tradition Two Example

Here’s a simple, real-world example that shows Tradition Two in action in a romantic relationship:

Tradition Two:

“For our group purpose there is but one authority—a loving God as He may express Himself in our group conscience. Our leaders are but trusted servants—they do not govern.”

Scenario:

Taylor and Morgan, a couple, are arguing over how to spend their weekend. Taylor wants quiet time at home; Morgan wants to go out with friends. Tension rises as each tries to push their own agenda.

Applying Tradition Two – Shared Guidance, Not Control

1. Pause and Invite Higher Guidance

  • Instead of arguing, they take a break and reflect on what a loving, balanced choice might look like—this is like listening for a “group conscience” guided by mutual respect and a Higher Power.

2. Practice Equality, Not Control

  • Taylor says, “I realize I’ve been trying to control the plan. I want us both to feel good about how we spend time.”
  • Morgan responds, “I hear that. I don’t want to pressure you either. Maybe we can find something that meets both our needs.”

3. Trust Each Other as Servants, Not Governors

  • They decide to spend Saturday evening with friends (Morgan’s choice), and Sunday as a quiet day at home (Taylor’s need).

Outcome:

Instead of pushing their own way, they paused, listened, and worked together as equals. They trusted a higher principle—love, respect, and compromise—to guide their decision, rather than fighting for control.

Tradition Three Example

Here’s a simple, real-world example that shows Tradition Three in action in a work relationship:

Tradition Three:

“The relatives of alcoholics, when gathered together for mutual aid, may call themselves an Al-Anon Family Group, provided that, as a group, they have no other affiliation.”

At its core, this Tradition is about belonging without conditions, inclusion, and avoiding distractions or divisions based on outside affiliations or expectations.

Scenario:

Jordan and Sam are coworkers on a team project. Sam is introverted and doesn’t engage much socially at work, while Jordan thrives on collaboration and team bonding. Jordan starts to feel annoyed and distant, thinking Sam “isn’t a team player.”

Applying Tradition Three – Acceptance Without Conditions

1. Focus on the Shared Purpose

  • Jordan reflects: “Our purpose is to work well together and complete the project—not to be socially alike.”
  • Jordan shifts focus from trying to change Sam’s personality to collaborating respectfully.

2. Practice Inclusion Without Pressure

  • Jordan invites Sam to optional meetings without expecting them to participate socially.
  • Sam feels more accepted and slowly opens up in a professional, comfortable way.

3. Let Go of Outside Expectations

  • Jordan stops expecting Sam to conform to their own ideas of a “good teammate” and starts appreciating Sam’s quiet strengths.

Outcome:

The relationship improves as Jordan practices acceptance over expectation, keeping the focus on their shared work—not on personal differences. By letting go of conditional thinking, unity and cooperation grow naturally.

Tradition Four Example

Here’s a simple, real-world example that shows Tradition Four in action in a friendship:

Tradition Four:

“Each group should be autonomous, except in matters affecting another group or Al-Anon or AA as a whole.”

This Tradition highlights the value of autonomy—allowing others the freedom to make their own choices—while recognizing when those choices impact the relationship as a whole.

Scenario:

Riley and Casey are close friends. Riley loves to plan everything down to the detail, while Casey prefers to be spontaneous. When they plan a weekend trip together, Riley gets frustrated when Casey changes the itinerary last-minute. Casey feels controlled and boxed in.

Applying Tradition Four – Balancing Autonomy and Shared Impact

1. Respect Individual Autonomy

  • Riley acknowledges: “Casey has the right to make spontaneous choices. That’s part of who they are.”
  • Casey reflects: “Riley values planning, and that helps things run smoothly.”

2. Recognize When It Affects the Relationship

  • They talk about how Casey’s last-minute changes caused Riley stress—and how Riley’s rigidity can make Casey feel stifled.
  • They realize these choices aren’t just personal—they impact the relationship.

3. Set Respectful Agreements

  • They agree to a basic structure for the trip with room for spontaneous detours, so both needs are honored.
  • They commit to checking in before making significant changes.

Outcome:

By honoring each other’s autonomy and addressing how their choices affect one another, Riley and Casey create a more respectful and enjoyable dynamic—one that reflects both individuality and shared responsibility.

Tradition Five Example

Here’s a simple, real-world example that shows Tradition Five in action in a romantic relationship:

Tradition Five:

“Each Al-Anon Family Group has but one purpose: to help families of alcoholics.”

The essence of this Tradition is staying focused on a shared purpose, especially one rooted in care, healing, or connection—rather than being distracted by ego, blame, or control.

Scenario:

Ava and Jordan are a couple. Lately, they’ve been arguing over chores and time spent together. The tension grows, and the arguments start to feel more about who’s doing more or who’s right, rather than resolving the real issue.

Applying Tradition Five – Returning to the Relationship’s Purpose

1. Refocus on Shared Purpose

  • Ava reflects: “What matters most isn’t who’s right—it’s that we both feel loved and supported.”
  • Jordan agrees: “I want us to be close again, not caught in keeping score.”

2. Let Love Lead the Conversation

  • They shift the discussion from blame to understanding: “When you don’t help with dishes, I feel overwhelmed,” and “When I feel nagged, I shut down.”

3. Make Choices That Support the Relationship’s Health

  • Instead of arguing about the past, they create a small plan to share chores and commit to regular check-ins—supporting the deeper goal of feeling connected and respected.

Outcome:

By returning to their shared spiritual purpose—love, partnership, and growth—they stop fighting against each other and start working together again. Tradition Five reminds them that their relationship exists not to win arguments but to help each other become healthier and more loving.

Tradition Six Example

Here’s a simple, real-world example that shows Tradition Six in action in a work relationship:

Tradition Six:

“Our Family Groups ought never endorse, finance, or lend our name to any outside enterprise, lest problems of money, property, and prestige divert us from our primary spiritual aim.”

This Tradition cautions us not to let money, prestige, or outside agendas interfere with our core purpose—whether in a group or a relationship.

Scenario:

Elena and Marcus are coworkers and also friends. Marcus asks Elena to promote his side business to their office team. Elena feels uncomfortable—she values the friendship and doesn’t want to upset Marcus, but she also feels it’s inappropriate.

Applying Tradition Six – Keeping Relationships Free from Outside Agendas

1. Identify the Core Purpose

  • Elena thinks: “Our friendship and work relationship are built on mutual respect—not business favors or personal gain.”

2. Gently Maintain Integrity

  • Elena says, “I support you, but I want to keep our work space focused on work. I hope you understand.”

3. Avoid Letting Prestige or Pressure Cloud the Relationship

  • Marcus feels disappointed but appreciates Elena’s honesty. Their friendship stays intact because Elena stayed true to her values without blaming or shaming.

Outcome:

By not mixing friendship with financial gain or outside promotion, Elena honors the relationship’s foundation. Tradition Six helps them avoid the distractions and potential resentment that can come from outside entanglements.

Tradition Seven Example

Here’s a simple, real-world example that shows Tradition Seven in action in a romantic relationship:

Tradition Seven:

“Every group ought to be fully self-supporting, declining outside contributions.”

In personal relationships, this Tradition encourages emotional and financial self-responsibility, reminding us not to rely on others to meet needs we can manage ourselves—and not to over-give in ways that breed resentment.

Scenario:

Sam and Riley are a couple. Riley often pays for everything—groceries, rent, outings—because Sam is struggling financially. Over time, Riley starts to feel taken for granted, while Sam feels ashamed and dependent.

Applying Tradition Seven – Practicing Self-Support

1. Acknowledge the Imbalance

  • Riley reflects: “I want to help, but I’m starting to feel overwhelmed. This doesn’t feel like a balanced partnership anymore.”
  • Sam admits: “I’ve been relying too much on you. I need to start taking more responsibility.”

2. Shift Toward Shared Responsibility

  • They agree on a new plan: Sam contributes what they can financially, and helps more with household tasks, while working toward greater financial independence.

3. Prioritize Emotional Self-Support Too

  • Riley also begins checking in with a sponsor and setting boundaries around financial help, while Sam starts therapy to work through feelings of inadequacy.

Outcome:

Their relationship grows stronger as both take responsibility for themselves. Tradition Seven helps them avoid codependence and foster mutual respect and dignity.

Tradition Eight Example

Here’s a simple, real-world example that shows Tradition Eight in action in a friendship:

Tradition Eight:

“Al-Anon Twelfth Step work should remain forever non-professional, but our service centers may employ special workers.”

This Tradition reminds us that personal relationships are not therapy sessions—we’re equals, not fixers. Support is best offered through love and presence, not as unsolicited advice or emotional management.

Scenario:

Leah is going through a tough breakup and frequently leans on her friend Dani for support. Dani, wanting to help, starts giving lots of advice—telling Leah what she should do, what to feel, and how to move on. Leah starts pulling away, feeling unheard and judged.

Applying Tradition Eight – Offering Support, Not Fixes

1. Shift from Fixing to Listening

  • Dani realizes: “I’ve been trying to act like a therapist instead of a friend. What Leah needs is someone to just be there.”

2. Offer Presence, Not Professionalism

  • Dani says: “I’m here for you. I don’t have all the answers, but I care about you deeply. Do you want to talk or just hang out?”

3. Respect Boundaries and Roles

  • Leah feels safer and more accepted, and their friendship deepens through mutual respect rather than emotional overreach.

Outcome:

The friendship strengthens as Dani learns to support without overstepping. Tradition Eight helps both friends stay grounded in their equal, loving roles, instead of falling into unhelpful dynamics like advice-giving, rescuing, or emotional dependency.

Tradition Nine Example

Here’s a simple, real-world example that shows Tradition Nine in action in a work relationship:

Tradition Nine:

“Our groups, as such, ought never be organized; but we may create service boards or committees directly responsible to those they serve.”

This Tradition teaches us that relationships thrive on cooperation, not control. While some structure can help things run smoothly, it should serve the people involved—not dominate them.

Scenario:

Maya and Leo are coworkers collaborating on a project. Maya likes structure and wants to set rigid roles and detailed schedules. Leo prefers flexibility and feels stifled by too many rules. Tension builds as both feel frustrated and unheard.

Applying Tradition Nine – Creating Supportive, Not Controlling, Structure

1. Reevaluate the Purpose of Organization

  • Maya reflects: “My structure should help us, not control the whole process.”
  • Leo realizes: “Some structure might actually reduce stress if I have a say in it.”

2. Co-create a Flexible System

  • They agree to set basic deadlines and task divisions, but with room for adjustments and check-ins.
  • They each take responsibility for parts of the project, with shared oversight.

3. Use Structure to Serve the Relationship

  • They focus on collaboration over control, making the process supportive rather than rigid.

Outcome:

By creating a system that serves both their working styles, they improve not just the project but their respect for one another. Tradition Nine reminds us that structure should serve people—not dominate them.

Tradition Ten Example

Here’s a simple, real-world example that shows Tradition Ten in action in a friendship:

Tradition Ten:

“The Al-Anon Family Groups have no opinion on outside issues; hence our name ought never be drawn into public controversy.”

This Tradition teaches us to avoid taking sides or pushing opinions on outside issues, especially when it could damage connection or cause unnecessary conflict. It emphasizes peace over controversy.

Scenario:

Chris and Taylor are longtime friends. During a lunch conversation, they start discussing a hot-button political issue. Chris feels passionate and pushes their opinion strongly. Taylor, who disagrees, starts to feel uncomfortable and unheard. Their friendship becomes tense.

Applying Tradition Ten – Prioritizing Connection Over Controversy

1. Step Back from the Debate

  • Chris notices the tension and reflects: “Is this conversation bringing us closer or pushing us apart?”

2. Respect Differences

  • Chris says, “I realize we see this differently, and I don’t want this issue to come between us. Let’s focus on what brings us together.”

3. Choose Unity Over Being Right

  • They agree to shift the conversation and revisit topics that deepen their friendship rather than divide it.

Outcome:

By setting aside an outside controversy, Chris and Taylor preserve their connection. Tradition Ten helps them remember that relationships don’t have to hinge on agreement—only on mutual respect.

Tradition Eleven Example

Here’s a simple, real-world example that shows Tradition Eleven in action in a romantic relationship:

Tradition Eleven:

“Our public relations policy is based on attraction rather than promotion; we need always maintain personal anonymity at the level of press, radio, films, and TV.”

At its heart, this Tradition teaches us to let our actions speak louder than words, and to value humility, privacy, and integrity over trying to impress or control how others see us or our relationships.

Scenario:

Nina and Alex are in a relationship. Nina loves sharing about their life together on social media. Alex, more private, starts feeling exposed and uncomfortable when their disagreements or personal moments are mentioned in posts. It begins to cause conflict.

Applying Tradition Eleven – Attraction Over Promotion

1. Shift from Image to Integrity

  • Nina reflects: “I’ve been more focused on how we look as a couple than how we feel as a couple.”
  • Alex shares: “I value our relationship, but I need more privacy to feel safe.”

2. Practice Humility and Respect for Anonymity

  • They agree to keep certain aspects of their relationship private, focusing on building trust and closeness offline.

3. Let Love Show Through Actions

  • Nina decides to express appreciation directly to Alex instead of through public posts, and Alex responds with warmth and gratitude.

Outcome:

By choosing quiet authenticity over public approval, they strengthen their connection. Tradition Eleven reminds them that true attraction comes from how we treat each other—not from how we’re perceived by others.

Tradition Twelve Example

Here’s a simple, real-world example that shows Tradition Twelve in action in a romantic relationship:

Here’s a heartfelt example of Tradition Twelve applied in a romantic relationship:

Tradition Twelve:

“Anonymity is the spiritual foundation of all our Traditions, ever reminding us to place principles above personalities.”

This Tradition encourages us to focus on principles like love, humility, patience, and respect, rather than getting caught up in ego, pride, or emotional reactions to others’ flaws.

Scenario:

Ella and Jonah are in a relationship. Jonah has a habit of interrupting during conversations, which makes Ella feel dismissed. She begins to take it personally, and tension builds. Ella starts criticizing Jonah in return, leading to more hurt feelings.

Applying Tradition Twelve – Principles Above Personalities

1. Shift from Reaction to Reflection

  • Ella pauses and reflects: “Instead of reacting to Jonah’s behavior, can I respond with patience and kindness?”

2. Speak from Principle, Not Emotion

  • Ella calmly says, “When I’m interrupted, I feel unimportant. I’d appreciate more space to finish my thoughts.”
  • She avoids attacking Jonah’s personality and instead focuses on her need, grounded in respect.

3. Jonah Responds with Humility

  • Jonah, instead of defending himself, says, “I didn’t realize how that affected you. I’ll work on being more mindful.”

Outcome:

By placing principles over personalities, they move from blame and defensiveness to empathy and action. Tradition Twelve helps them practice humility, listen with love, and prioritize connection over ego.

 

Constructions of Heroism: How People Perceive, Create, and Establish Heroes

Commentary and Analysis

This post is based on the following chapter in the Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies:

  • Allison, S. T. (2024). Constructions of Heroism. In S. T. Allison, J. K. Beggan, and G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies. Springer Nature.

By Scott T. Allison

Heroism is considered a “construction” because it is a concept and set of behaviors that are shaped and defined by many aspects of people, society, and contexts. The perception of who is considered a hero, what heroic actions entail, and the qualities associated with heroism can vary significantly as a function of different types of constructions. There are at least 12 different ways that heroism has been constructed, as follows:

  1. Perceptual Construction

Gestalt principles of perceptual organization can contribute to seeing heroes where there may be none through the process of pattern recognition and the way our brains organize and interpret visual information (Goethals & Allison, 2019). Gestalt psychology emphasizes that the human mind tends to perceive objects and scenes as whole, organized entities rather than a collection of individual parts. This can lead to the perception of meaningful patterns even in ambiguous or random stimuli. Selective attention can lead to a biased perception, making certain individuals appear heroic even when their actions might not objectively warrant that label.

In addition, the Gestalt principle of closure refers to our tendency to mentally complete incomplete or fragmented information to perceive meaningful wholes. In the case of perceiving heroes, our minds may fill in gaps in information or actions, constructing a narrative that portrays certain individuals as heroic even if the complete story might not support that conclusion. The principle of proximity, moreover, suggests that objects that are close together in space tend to be perceived as belonging to the same group. In the context of seeing heroes, our minds may group together certain actions or individuals based on their proximity, even if the connections between them are tenuous or coincidental. This grouping can create the perception of heroism in individuals who may not have acted heroically at all.

  1. Mental Construction

Our minds and preconceived notions significantly impact our perception and interpretation of events, leading to constructions of heroism (Goethals & Allison, 2012). People tend to construct narratives about themselves and others based on schemas, scripts, stereotypes, biases, attribution theory, and other cognitive mechanisms grounded in psychology and neuroscience. Fiske and Taylor (2013) describe many cognitive biases than can lead to skewed constructions of heroism. For instance, the confirmation bias causes individuals to seek out evidence supporting preexisting assumptions while disregarding contradictory data. Similarly, fundamental attribution error attributes behavior solely to internal dispositions instead of external circumstances. Additionally, recency effect increases the likelihood of recalling more recent instances over older ones even if less significant. Lastly, availability heuristic magnifies importance of easily recalled instances over obscured incidents.

These cognitive processes shape how individuals assess heroism in ambiguous scenarios. If someone expects another person to display heroic behaviors because of gender, race, ethnicity, education, career choice, or another trait, then they might mistake everyday acts as extraordinary feats deserving recognition. Conversely, dismissing potential heroes due to negative characteristics or past mistakes prevents appreciating actual courage during crises. Therefore, understanding our innate tendencies helps avoid premature conclusions about hero status and encourages open-minded appraisals without jumping to hasty judgments based upon limited information or presupposed qualities.

  1. Motivational Construction

Motivational biases can strongly influence people’s perceptions of heroism. Becker’s (1973) concept of the universal urge to heroism refers to a fundamental desire within all human beings to strive for greatness and transcendence. According to Becker, people are driven by a deep longing to leave a lasting impact, to be significant, and to overcome their own mortality. The universal urge to heroism manifests itself in various forms, such as artistic creation, scientific discovery, spiritual enlightenment, political leadership, or acts of altruism and selfless sacrifice for others.

Goethals and Allison (2019) coined the phrase, the romance of heroism, referring to people’s idealistic and quixotic notions of heroes and heroic leadership. This romantic longing for heroes fuels romanticized ideas about who heroes are, what they are like, and when they should emerge. The romance of heroism leads to exaggerated perceptions of the heroic qualities in certain types of people, especially under conditions of stress and uncertainty. This explains why observers frequently imbue heroic attributes onto public figures possessing qualities matching their private aspirations for esteem, love, belonging, respect, admiration, validation, success, wealth, celebrity, and significance. As a result, individuals often idealize or idolize role models who personify their yearnings for significance in society.

  1. Metaphorical Construction

Joseph Campbell (2012, 45) once said, “Every myth, that is to say, whether or not by intention, is psychologically symbolic. Its narratives and images are to be read, therefore, not literally, but as metaphors.” People use metaphors to evoke powerful and vivid images that capture the essence of heroism. Here are some common metaphors used to describe heroes include a shining star, a beacon of hope, a pillar of strength, a guardian angel, a knight in shining armor, a rock, an anchor, a warrior, a lighthouse, a golden heart, a phoenix rising from the ashes, a champion, a rainbow after a storm, a god, and a legend. These metaphors help to paint vivid and evocative images of heroes, capturing the essence of their heroic qualities, actions, and impact on others.

Allison, Goethals and Kramer (2017) reviewed the metaphors that scholars have used to describe heroism. The use of metaphor throughout the history of science has helped scholars identify fresh frameworks for identifying new phenomena worthy of scrutiny. Thomas Carlyle’s (1841) great man theory of heroic leadership offered the first metaphor of human agency as paramount in understanding heroic action. Kinsella, Ritchie, and Igou’s (2015) prototype analysis of a hero’s characteristics serves as an example of research that follows in this metaphorical tradition. Campbell’s (1949) monomyth of the hero’s journey represents another metaphor of heroism. The idea that heroism is a journey of growth would seem to underlie research on heroism as a lifelong developmental process (Allison et al. 2019).

Franco and Zimbardo have composed two metaphors of heroism. The banality of heroism metaphor (Franco & Zimbardo, 2006) emphasizes the human universality of heroism and fosters the heroic potential in everyone. The metaphor of heroic imagination (Franco et al., 2011) “can be seen as mind-set, a collection of attitudes about helping others in need, beginning with caring for others in compassionate ways, but also moving toward a willingness to sacrifice or take risks on behalf of others or in defense of a moral cause” (p. 111).

  1. Spiritual Construction

The world’s spiritual traditions often represent heroism through various archetypes, teachings, and stories that inspire individuals to overcome challenges, cultivate virtues, and strive for personal and collective transformation. Many spiritual traditions highlight the heroism of selfless sacrifice and compassion for others. Heroes are often portrayed as individuals who put the needs and well-being of others above their own, showing great empathy and kindness. Spiritual heroes frequently face trials, temptations, or difficult circumstances, which they must overcome to achieve their goals. These struggles represent the internal and external battles that individuals face on their spiritual journeys. Heroic figures in spiritual tales often confront malevolent forces or negative aspects of the human condition, symbolizing the struggle against ignorance, ego, greed, and hatred. They embody the triumph of good over evil.

Spiritual heroes embody and exemplify virtues such as courage, wisdom, humility, patience, and love. These qualities serve as guiding principles for others on their own heroic paths. Spiritual heroes are often depicted as individuals who have a profound connection with the divine or the sacred. Their actions and accomplishments are seen as a manifestation of divine grace and guidance. Spiritual heroes serve as role models, motivating individuals to make positive changes in their lives and communities. They encourage people to become agents of transformation and contribute to the betterment of the world.

  1. Image Construction

Human societies have used a wide range of images to represent heroism, drawing inspiration from mythology, folklore, literature, art, and popular culture. These images often reflect the values, beliefs, and aspirations of different cultures and historical periods. Heroic images are influenced by cultural, social, and technological changes, and they play a crucial role in shaping the collective imagination and inspiring individuals to strive for greatness, make positive contributions, and face challenges with courage and resilience.

Some common images of heroism found across various societies include everyday heroes such as teachers who inspire their students, caregivers who selflessly care for others, or community leaders who work for the common good; inspirational figures such as Nelson Mandela, Joan of Arc, and Mother Teresa; superheroes such as Spider-Man and Wonder Woman; social activist heroes such as Susan B. Anthony, Mahatma Gandhi, and Che Guevara; and first responders such as firefighters, nurses, law enforcement, military, and paramedics. In Christianity, the image of the cross is a powerful symbol of sacrifice, suffering, and redemption; in Buddhism, the image of the Buddha symbolizes enlightenment and awakening; in Hinduism, the image of Lord Shiva with his third eye represents spiritual wisdom.

  1. Ecological Construction

 Ecological constructions of heroism refer to the human-environment interaction and how it plays a role in becoming heroic and in identifying heroic elements in others. This type of construction was proposed by Efthimiou (2017), who noted that “the body does not, and cannot, therefore, exist independent of its environment” (Johnson 2008, 164). In the context of prosocial behavior, Lerner and Schmid Callina (2014) proposed a relational developmental systems model of character development that adopts this ecological approach. The model describes how our senses, bodily sensations, awareness, perceptions, neurochemistry, cellular behavior, physical expressions, language and so forth are inextricably connected with our interactions and perceptions of the world.

Efthimiou (2017, 146) argues that “the heroic body as biological organism is housed in the pre-conscious, the habitual body and the body schema.” Heroism and heroic descriptions of others are constructions based on the interaction between our sensory-motor experiences and aspects of our physical world such as shapes, color, temperature, and surface textures. Moreover, different types of intelligence embedded in our bodies, such as emotional intelligence and physical intelligence, are integral part of the heroic body. These embodied intelligences and their interactions with the physical world shape how heroic action is performed and perceived.

  1. Social Construction

Heroism is socially constructed through the collective beliefs, values, and norms of a particular society (Rankin and Eagly 2008). The social construction of heroism can vary significantly across different societies and can be affected by a society’s values, history, mythology, political system, media, religion, philosophy, gender norms, national identity, collective memory, and social movements. Decter-Frain, Vanstone, and Frimer (2017) offered a social constructivist approach to how groups identify moral heroes. These scholars argue that “groups may catapult relatively ordinary individuals into moral heroism” (121). Groups do so by giving these ordinary people titles and awards, propagating heroic portraits, and encouraging them to give inspiring speeches. Social constructions of moral heroes benefits a society by promoting ingroup identity, providing a rallying point around which to unite, encouraging cooperation, and providing moral models (Kinsella, Ritchie, and Igou 2015).

The social construction of heroism is dynamic and can evolve over time. As societies change, so do their definitions and representations of heroism. What is considered heroic in one era or culture may not necessarily hold the same status in another. Understanding the social construction of heroism helps us analyze how societies collectively assign value and meaning to certain actions, individuals, and ideals, contributing to the shaping of cultural identity and aspirations. Understanding how societies construct their heroes is important for understanding how heroes embody societal norms, and how heroes reflect the values, beliefs, and aspirations of a society. The social construction of heroes enables individuals to navigate the complexities of culture, power dynamics, and collective values.

  1. Historical Construction

Throughout history, heroes have been constructed and celebrated by societies in various ways. From antiquity to modern times, cultures have created heroic figures and narratives that embody their values, ideals, and aspirations. Examples of historical constructions abound. Ancient Greek’s constructed the mythological figure of Achilles, the hero of the Trojan War and a central figure in the Iliad. In Norse mythology, Thor, the god of thunder, and Odin, the All-Father, were revered as heroic figures. The epic of Gilgamesh, one of the oldest known literary works, tells the story of a legendary Sumerian king. In ancient China, Guan Yu was a general known for his loyalty, martial prowess, and unwavering adherence to Confucian virtues. Ancient India constructed the heroism of Arjuna, a skilled warrior and one of the Pandava brothers. His moral dilemma and inner conflict on the battlefield of Kurukshetra, as depicted in the Bhagavad Gita, exemplify the complexities of duty, righteousness, and heroism in the face of adversity.

Medieval Europe revered the legendary King Arthur and his knights of the Round Table. In Medieval Japan, Minamoto no Yoshitsune was a brave samurai warrior during the late Heian and early Kamakura periods in Japan. During the Renaissance, Joan of Arc was constructed heroically for her unwavering faith, courage, and sense of divine mission. Early in its history, the United States constructed George Washington as an iconic hero during the American Revolution. These examples illustrate how societies have drawn from historical events to construct heroes from a diverse range of contexts, including mythology and literature. Each hero embodies the specific values and cultural ideals of their time and place, reflecting the dynamic nature of heroism and its connection to the collective identity of societies throughout history.

  1. Media Construction

In modern society, the media has played a significant role in constructing and shaping heroes. Media representations of heroes are guided by the latest technology delivery systems and reflect contemporary values, cultural trends, and societal aspirations. The rise of social media gave rise to social media influencers and internet personalities who are celebrated as heroes or anti-heroes. The media provides extensive coverage of certain individuals, focusing on their achievements, talents, philanthropy, or charismatic personalities. Through repeated exposure in news articles, interviews, and entertainment shows, these figures become familiar and influential in the public eye. A celebrity thus becomes, in the words of Boorstin (1961, 8), “a person well known for his well-knownness.”

Social media platforms such as Instagram have a profound influence on creating heroes by providing a powerful and accessible platform for individuals to cultivate and promote their public image. The nature of Instagram, with its emphasis on visual content and personal branding, allows users to present themselves in curated and aspirational ways, leading to the construction of heroic personas. This hero construction derives from personal branding, the showcasing of talents and achievements, philanthropy and social impact, engagement with fans, the fostering of fan communities, visual storytelling, and collaborations and partnerships.

  1. Physical Construction

Societies create physical representations of heroes as a way to honor, commemorate, and celebrate individuals or figures who are seen as embodying heroic qualities or making significant contributions to their communities or the world. These representations take various forms, including statues and sculptures often on display in public spaces, parks, and squares; war memorials erected to honor fallen soldiers and veterans; portrait paintings and portraits;

architectural monuments; named streets, parks, and buildings; national symbols and currency; hall of fames and walk of fames; public commemorations and ceremonies; religious and spiritual places; and digital memorials. These physical representations serve not only to celebrate the heroic deeds and qualities of specific individuals but also to reinforce collective memory and cultural identity. They play a crucial role in preserving historical narratives and inspiring future generations to aspire to greatness and contribute positively to society.

  1. Cultural Construction

 Different cultures hold different conceptions of heroism (Sun, Kinsella, and Igou 2023). To illustrate cultural differences in hero construction, we will compare hero construction in Ancient Egypt with hero construction in modern America. The ancient Egyptians highly valued and actively cultivated the worship and glorification of certain individuals who were seen as heroic or semi-divine figures. These culturally constructed heroes were dominated by images of

Modern US culture offers an interesting contrast with that of ancient Egypt. American culture fosters the creation of cultural heroes through the media and entertainment industry. Actors, musicians, athletes, and other public figures are elevated to hero status through extensive media coverage, celebrity endorsements, and fan engagement. Movies, TV shows, music, and sports events often glorify these figures, emphasizing their talent, achievements, and charisma.

Reality TV shows and social media platforms have given rise to a new breed of cultural heroes. Individuals who gain popularity through reality TV competitions or social media influence can become widely recognized figures with large followings. American culture celebrates entrepreneurs, inventors, and innovators who have made significant contributions to society. American culture places a strong emphasis on sports heroes. Athletes who achieve exceptional success, break records, or display extraordinary dedication become cultural icons.

Conclusion

Heroism appears to be a construction reflecting many factors ranging from the micro (biological factors) to the macro (societal factors). This undeniable fact does not preclude the need to objectively identify, categorize, and encourage real heroic action. Hero training programs based on current constructions of heroism are undeniably important in promoting social harmony and progress. This chapter merely underscores the reality of heroism being subject to change based on changes in history, religion, politics, psychology, media, and many other forces that are constantly in flux.

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