The War on Terror through Arab-American Eyes & Billy Lynn’s Long Halftime Walk

In David Kaufer and Amal Mohammed Al-Malki’s article, “The War on Terror through Arab-American Eyes: The Arab-American Press as a Rhetorical Counterpublic,” the authors defend the argument that the Arab-American press act as a counterpublic media by publishing articles reflecting assimilative enclaves and satellites separating the the Arab-American communities. Kaufer and Al-Malki begin by explaining the nature of rhetorical counterpublic. The authors cite Fraser’s definition of counterpublic as “parallel discursive arenas where members of subordinated social groups invent and circulate counter discourses to formulate oppositional interpretations of their identities, interests, and needs” (Fraser 123). Counterpublics serve a dual purpose of protection for the subaltern and aggression to change the majority viewpoint regarding the specific group. The authors warn readers of associating a counterpublic with the “stereotypical group” (4) outside of its definitive rhetoric.

They then move on the first of the two types of counterpublic rhetoric. Both before and after the 9/11 attacks, the Arab-American media has been publishing counterpublic content as “enclaves to assimilate” (1). Citing the examples of Chicago firefighter A. Robert Abboud and a national American Muslim political council, the authors demonstrate examples of Arab-Americans reminding the American public that they are Americans too and that they felt the loss of 9/11 just as greatly as anyone else. It is deeply saddening that citizens of our country must go out of their way to confirm that, yes, they are citizens of this country and their care for the country is not impacted by nationality. Some Arab-American media such as the Arab American Institute, makes it their mission to serve as this first type of counterpublic, the group’s founding statement on their homepage being to “nurture and encourage the direct participation of Arab Americans in political and civic life in the United States” (AAI).

http://www.aaiusa.org

The following news clip from post 9/11 discusses some of the assimilative displays discussed in the article.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wHkbMgu2L9o

Through this assimilative rhetoric, non-Arab-Americans might be able to familiarize themselves with this rhetoric and help bridge any gaps in understanding and aid in cementing the liberties of all people. The authors discuss how in the wake of 9/11, many Arab-Americans faced unjust and unfair treatment by the government and their non-Arab fellow citizens. The enclave assimilation goal of this counterpublic aims to remind the country of our American unity and cries out for liberty for all.

The second type of counterpublic rhetoric the authors cite carries the goal of being a satellite separate from the mainstream media and society. This counterpublic aims to bring unity within the group in question while openly acknowledging a separation from the mainstream. This type of counterpublic is about creating an atmosphere of coexistence with the mainstream in as peaceful a manner as possible. Satellite articles in Arab American News focus on the Arab community worldwide as opposed to the American community as in the enclave counterpublic. Citing Roberts while referencing a previous text, Kaufer and Al-Malki argue that, “while ‘satellite’ stories of this type criticize American policy, they do so from the standpoint of respectful dissent rather than flagrant resistance” (14)

The following article from Arab American News presents an article about the lives of Arab-Americans, strengthening the bond within the Arab-American community.

http://www.arabamericannews.com/2017/03/24/arab-american-storytellers-share-personal-narratives

The authors argue that the Arab-American identity is one of a hybrid between Arab identity in line with the satellite counterpublic and American identity in line with the enclave counterpublic. They cite the Clinton and Bush administrations with attempting to only validate the enclave assimilative side. While Arab-Americans are not exclusively Muslim by any means, the following clips from the Oprah Winfrey Show one week after 9/11 and the Al Jazeera feature highlight the types of conflict in the American mainstream that casts Arab-Americans and Muslims as not really American, the type of rhetoric counterpublic media attempts to remedy.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CkCvEgukWBo

Al Jazeera: Growing up Muslim in post 9/11 America

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ghcd7ZZ6sy4

Now more than 15 years after 9/11, this counterpublic is still heavily relevant, arguably more so than ever, prompting questions regarding how mainstream media can change to better align with the goals of this counterpublic.

In Billy Lynn’s Long Halftime Walk, the contrast between the harsh reality Billy and the Bravo squad faced in Iraq and the material American society is heavily noteworthy. As Billy and the rest of Bravo encounter the Cowboys’ owner and Billy spends time at home, the contrast cannot be ignored. The soldiers face waves of eager but misguided civilians thanking them for their service, however, the soldiers do not welcome this praise. Billy is continuously tormented by thoughts of Shroom and finally breaks down after attending a lavish meal.

The link below contains an interview with a soldier discussing the effects of PTSD after returning home from the battlefield, much like Billy Lynn in the novel.

https://www.pri.org/stories/2015-05-13/ptsd-isnt-about-what-happens-battlefield-what-happens-back-home

Works Cited

Fountain, Ben. Billy Lynn’s Long Halftime Walk. New York: Ecco, 2012. Print.

Fraser, Nancy. “Rethinking the Public Sphere: A Contribution to the Critique of Actually Existing

Democracy.” Habermas and the Public Sphere. Ed. Craig Calhoon. Cambridge, MA: MIT P,

109–42

Kaufer, David, and Amal Mohammed Al-Malki. “The War on Terror Through Arab-American Eyes.”

Rhetoric Review 28.1 (2009): 47-65. Taylor and Francis Group.

31 Responses to "The War on Terror through Arab-American Eyes & Billy Lynn’s Long Halftime Walk"

Caroline Zerkle says:

March 28, 2017 at 2:01 pm

I found the “War on Terror Through Arab-American Eyes” to be interesting. When reading the article, I couldn’t help but think about the changing views of Americans towards Arabs after 9/11. Personally, in my family I have seen this heightened sense of security. My uncle, Steve, who is from Lebanon and my cousin Omar have both been put in uncomfortable situations post 9/11. One prime example is when my aunt was bringing my cousins, Sophia and Omar, up to Pittsburgh to visit my family. They live in Houston so they decided to fly. This was about nine years ago so my cousin Omar was five. My aunt and my cousin Sophia had no trouble boarding the plane, but my five year old cousin Omar was initially not allowed to go on the flight as his name, Omar Elasmar, was on the no fly list. Despite his age, my cousin as well as my aunt and cousin had to be brought to questioning because of his common Arab name and darker skin tone. My aunt who is german and irish and catholic, from Ohio and my cousin Sophia who looks more like my aunt than my uncle Steve, did not face the same discrimination that my five year old cousin did. I have no doubt that many people have faced a situation similar to this. However, we as Americans must balance discrimination with safety. We should not alienate a community of our own citizens or a community abroad. However, as with every group, we must recognize that there are shortcoming and act appropriately. One interesting take and common debate on this can be seen here. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vln9D81eO60
1. Claire Brown says:
  
  April 8, 2017 at 2:28 pm
  
  Your cousin’s experience really speaks to the everyday discrimination some Americans endure in their day to day lives. It is sometimes difficult for people who do not face these obstacles to understand the full weight of what these communities go through and the steps they must take to simply be seen as loyal American citizens. I agree with you that there is a fine line between necessary precaution and discrimination and a possible solution might be one that takes mainstream ideologies regarding Arab-Americans and Islam (because while the two are completely separate things, the overlap between the two is critical to breaking down discrimination) and incorporates Arab-American counterpublic ideologies. The YouTube video you shared is a very interesting take on this.
Isaiah Duplessis says:

March 28, 2017 at 4:41 pm

I will be focusing on the Article, instead of Billy Lynn.
The article puts forth the uneasy nature of crafting rhetoric that in the difficult Post 9/11 world for Arabs and Muslims. The majority of Americans would generalize and isolate these groups from the vision of America, therefore they needed to reintegrate themselves at the threat of losing their safety and their rights. Unfairly their status as Americans came into question and they used rhetoric and writing to attempt to crawl out of the hole, and reassert themselves as Americans. In the background the tensions were high and the political spectrums was unanimously unified against Muslims. As such three rhetorical styles developed, in accordance to the theory of counter culture the rhetoric became protective, assimilating, and dissenting.
What remains are my opinions:
Through each of the rhetoric, the American Arabs and Muslims persist in separating themselves from the theme of terror. The unfortunate thing is that we look at America nearly 15 years after the attacks Assimilation has reigned supreme. The foreign policy has yet to place America back within the view of the common good (if we ever were there) in the eyes of the world, and after President Obama’s recent end of a pro-diversity government, we have seen a large backlash to every minority group. While extreme violence has led to dissent in major cities among blacks, many American minority groups are explicitly attempting to assimilate right now. The political rhetorical sphere right now likely has every form of rhetoric, but assimilation is the one most likely having lasting impact. Every group is being forced to attach themselves more to their American status than their race as a means to protect themselves from racism. The effect will likely be rhetoric of blind support to government policies amongst or what the article describes homogeny towards white culture.
1. Claire Brown says:
  
  April 8, 2017 at 2:38 pm
  
  The situation in America is a very sad and unfortunate one for a great deal of minority groups that, like you said, have had to constantly and unfairly prove and reprove their identity as American. To expect anyone to prove their loyalty to their country is an unfortunate slap in the face to liberty. Someone who is loyal to their country should not be expected to prove it to anyone in order to feel safe and comfortable in their home. If the standard of proving patriotism and loyalty is in place for minorities, why don’t more represented groups feel a need to prove themselves as American? Hopefully, through raised awareness and other actions, the definition of what it means to be American can be shifted, and as a result, groups that are currently pressured to prove their Americanism on a day to day basis will have the freedom to be treated as much an American as anyone else.
Corey Beutel says:

March 28, 2017 at 5:08 pm

The Oprah video compliments “The War on Terror through Arab-American Eyes: The Arab-American Press as a Rhetorical Counterpublic” perfectly. The article discusses how Arabs must reaffirm to people that they are American. That they are exercising their religious freedom to be Muslim, practicing one of the principles America was founded on. The article discusses that there is a need for these people to tell the rest of the country that they are a citizen. In the Oprah video you can see how this plays out first-hand. A white women asks them to assimilate and give up their traditional dress. The response is that to give up religious freedom would be un-anmerican, only by continuing to wear their religious clothing are they truly practicing American values. Also the point is made that assimilation is not ideal in society. We do not want everyone to be the exact same, we want different ethnicities to live in unity. In order to achieve a country where people can freely express their culture and ethnicity, the hatred and ignorance must be removed. If the hatred for people can be removed then unity can be achieved, not through assimilation but through acceptance.
1. Claire Brown says:
  
  April 8, 2017 at 2:48 pm
  
  The Oprah video stood out as something perfectly embodying the article’s discussion of assimilation and the pressure many Arab-Americans felt to prove their American identity and cast aside their Arab identity. As the white woman in the video demands assimilation, the Muslim respondents do a fantastic job of explaining the Americanism of maintaining their religious clothing. Their response is something that, if more broadly accepted throughout the United States, could drastically decrease discrimination and allow American culture to flourish. One of the main factors in this video, article, and in the country as a whole is the current definition of what it means to be American. Many people do not understand the American identity as well as the man in the Oprah video, and if his understanding was to be spread, America would be a very different place for the better.
Sean Foley says:

March 28, 2017 at 5:35 pm

David Kaufer and Amal Mohammed Al-Malki’s article The War on Terror through Arab-American Eyes: The Arab-American Press as a Rhetorical Counterpublic gave light to the voice of the Arab American media. The Arab-American media, whether pre or post 9/11, has always been writing towards the overlying message that Arab immigrants in America are citizens. Arab Americans were among the first groups of minorities to feel the effect of the American government’s crackdown on terrorism. Even before 9/11 Arab-Americans were feeling like they were being unrightfully treated by the government. They felt that their rights were being taken advantage of by the passage of the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty act. Yet, the Arab-American media was too small of ignored by the vast majority to be heard. Post 9/11 the Arab-American media was once again trying to fight for the fact that Arab-Americans were still citizens. Yet, due to the attacks, they had to do this in as patriotic of a manner as possible. This came off as fake and the majority of the American public felt skeptical of Arabs. In Detroit Arab-Americans were doing great things for the victims of 9/11; yet, this acts never reached the mainstream media. Instead, the Bush administration dominated the media and in turn kept the public at odds with the Arab community in America. An attack the size of 9/11 will always warrant a strong public outcry for revenge. Unfortunately, the public turned on the already on the defensive community of Arab-Americans. The Arab-American had to be careful to not be too aggressive in its rhetoric because it had to prove the Arab-Americans are totally patriotic. Therefore, post 9/11 the Arab media was operating on suppressed terms.
1. Claire Brown says:
  
  April 8, 2017 at 2:56 pm
  
  It is incredibly unfortunate that after the tragedy of 9/11, the American people turned their mix of emotions onto Arab-Americans rather than the people actually responsible for the disaster. This put a strain on the already strained Arab-American community to go to more extreme measures to prove their loyalty to the country when they were grieving just as much as the people who were discriminating against them. One key factor that seems to have been forgotten post-9/11 is that the pain felt by the people casting judgement on Arab-Americans was equally felt by Arab-Americans as well, if not even more so following the hardships the minority group faced in the time after the attacks.
Nicolas Delvalle says:

March 28, 2017 at 6:03 pm

Billy Lynn’s complex feelings surrounding wealth, superiority and facades are what intrigue me when reading Fountain’s novel. We are first exposed to his beliefs about civilians and their short-sighted views about the war on terror. These beliefs are magnified by the page long episodes in which Billy slips from complete consciousness and drifts between repeated phrases such as “nine-eleven,” “freedom,” or “liberty.” Through such passages we are better able to picture how Billy has come to the conclusions about civilians on the home-front. His views become much more complex though when he meets Norm and his band of rich associates. Billy simultaneously feels overpowered and inferior, and yet he notices the falseness of Norm’s act. In that discovery he connects several stories that make Norm seem small and deflated, such as the bathroom incident. In that his awe about Norm also seems to disappear, giving way to his contemplation about what is an act, and what is real. This discussion is at the heart of Fountain’s book; what constitutes an act, and where is the line that that act becomes real? Billy struggles to decipher what kind of facade to put up, and in that struggle is born is his beliefs about civilians, Norm, the bartender, and Faison. This is similarly represented by his relation to Dime, who he looks to as a model of action. Yet I would guess that just like Norm and the other rich men and women he met, once the illusion of mystery is pulled away, he will find that Dime’s actions carry no more weight than the others he has observed.
1. Claire Brown says:
  
  April 23, 2017 at 10:46 pm
  
  The challenges faced by Billy to understand the world around him and the people in it is certainly put in the spotlight in the novel. I agree with you that the shroud of mystery surrounding certain people like Dime is stripped, a level of regular humanness will be assigned. After thinking of Billy as a soldier, it is good to remember how young he is and that the pedestal he puts certain people on can be seen as a factor of his youth. His ability to look so critically and analytically at the world around him is very impressive throughout the novel.
George Clayson says:

March 28, 2017 at 10:17 pm

I enjoyed learning about the Arab-American counter culture we see in America today. Claire’s links such as to Oprah and the Channel 7 report showed the use of how the once counterculture appears to be changing to the majority culture. White citizens having conversations with Arab-American’s to explain their opinions or reasoning’s help move America forward. We often read or hear of the Hijab as a common topic for Arab-American women to discuss. This was discussed on Oprah’s show and I have also seen it throughout my Facebook and Instagram news feed as well. Such as Nike releasing an athletic Hijab and stories of the first Hijab-wearing ballerina or basketball player.
https://www.facebook.com/search/top/?q=hijab%20basketball
This search brings you to a video of a basketball player, who was unable to have a chance to play in the WNBA due to her Hijab, however after protesting the rule for two years it seems that they may eventually lift the rule.
This article is connected to Billy Lynn’s Long Halftime Walk, because like women wearing a Hijab, Billy is faced with a decision on how to act and how to carry himself. Should he act superior to citizens? Should he do what they do or does he set himself apart? Arab-American women face the same issue when deciding if wearing the Hijab is important enough to them. For example, the basketball player has trouble deciding if her religion or her favorite sport meant more too her, because she was put into a position where she had to choose one.
1. Claire Brown says:
  
  April 23, 2017 at 10:54 pm
  
  Issues such as hijab rules in sports are very important in today’s world. The Facebook articles surrounding Je’Nan Hayes and the rules preventing her form playing highlight some of the factors that play into the challenges that Muslim-Americans must face that non-Muslim-Americans might not even think of. In my own experience with cross country and track and field, I have known athletes who have had to choose whether or not to wear their hijabs in competition, and those that do often have to repeatedly justify and explain their choices to those around them. These choices that might seem routine to non-Muslims but certainly are not insignificant or something to be taken lightly.
Michael Horan says:

March 28, 2017 at 11:37 pm

I thought The War on Terror in Arab-American’s eyes, is a good synopsis of an extremely relevant and controversial topic today. The imperative patriotism that the authors speak of turned into rhetoric that was very anti-arab following 9-11. As sad as it is, it it evident that patriotism, and how “American” you are has veered from expressing love to your country to looking at the race of an individual and making that decision for yourself. Clearly, this is unfair to the thousands of Arab-Americans who vocally condemn and denounce the terrorist acts of 9-11.

We are now in a very interesting and pivotal point in this issue because of our current president’s agenda. Trump has used his podium to blame Muslims for terrorism, which will undoubtedly trickle down into common rhetoric and belief. Nevertheless, I think it is interesting because I think overall suspicion of aran-americans has gradually declined since 9/11. Why? The main reason is there have been no subsequent Muslim attacks on American soil. Another interesting fact that pertains to this is that the U.S. Army has recently permitted and designed a turbin for arab-americans in the Army to wear. I think this is a very big step for asimilating Arab identity in American culture, and is a visible sign that Arab people can be patriotic Americans too.
1. Claire Brown says:
  
  April 23, 2017 at 11:02 pm
  
  I completely agree that this topic is incredibly relevant today. Now, more than ever, Arab-Americans as well as countless other minorities are forced to either display a hyper-Americanism or risk being labeled un-American and outsider. This seems to violate the American principle of freedom. It is just as “American” to hold onto identities beyond the assimilated “American identity” as it is to solely identify with the “American identity,” which is what the questioning lady in the Oprah clip references. Both practices of completely assimilating and not giving up other pieces of identity exercise the American freedom to do as the people in question please, rendering both acts inherently American. This article addresses the unfortunate reality faced by so many Arab-Americans then and certainly speaks to what many might be feeling today.
Helen Spiller says:

March 28, 2017 at 11:59 pm

I found the article on The War on Terror through Arab-American eyes to be really interesting and an altogether unique perspective that many Americans don’t see. I thought it was an interesting article that looks further into Arab-American media pre and post 9/11. However, I didn’t find it that shocking that, as Claire showed with links, that Arab-Americans felt like outsiders in America and constantly alienated from society. I thought the video Oprah did was a perfect connection to the topic at hand. Not only did the article force me to look through more of an Arab-American perspective, but also it made me think about the recent immigration orders that President Trump has imposed. First of all, the order is commonly referred to as a the Muslim Ban because the majority of the countries banned from entering the United States are Muslim. The executive order is huge because it shows that the face of America, the president, wants to ban people from this country based on religion. This act ultimately puts all Arabs in a position where they couldn’t help but feel unwanted and un-American. I find this anti-muslim sentiment to be extremely saddening and, altogether, counter to American ideals. Towards the end of the article, Kaufer and Al-Malki mentioned how there was a mass exodus of Arab Americans out of America and back to where they emigrated from. I find this to be the most sad part. Innocent, law-abiding, American patriots feel so unsafe and unwanted in their own country due to religious beliefs that they must leave. I agree with Obama when he says we are only helping the terrorists by the growth of national hatred towards Muslims. We are a country of various religions, ethnicities, and beliefs which is what makes America so unique. If all Americans come together against Arab-Americans due to purely their religion, are we much better than terrorists?

http://time.com/4368733/barack-obama-donald-trump-muslim-ban-orlando-shooting/
1. Claire Brown says:
  
  April 23, 2017 at 11:11 pm
  
  The mass emigration you reference was one of the most saddening facts that I learned having read the article in question. For American citizens to reach a point where they are no longer treated as authentic and wanted American citizens is a sure and serious failing on the part of our country, and by default, every non-Arab American citizen. For any American citizen to feel excluded, unwanted, or unsafe is not only going against American principles, but also a reflection of what we have allowed America to become. While we do not live in a perfect world and it is impossible and unrealistic to expect our country to be perfect, there is no excuse for a failing so grave as to lead to masses of people feeling to need to flee the country to return home. America should be able to be a home for its citizens so for people to feel as they must return home, away from America, reflects the tremendous shortcomings of our country.
Colin O'Donnell says:

March 29, 2017 at 1:01 am

I found David Kaufer and Amal Mohammed Al-Malki’s article to be incredibly interesting as it gives you a perspective on post 9/11 U.S that most people don’t get to see. The videos also helps to show this side which often missed. One thing that struck out in the opera video and detroit news video, is how many muslims feel like they have to prove themselves as still loyal americans. Many people will see things such as their hijab and just assume that they are on the same side of the terrorists. Now, because of this they are forced to outwardly try and express their patriotism while a white american like myself would never even have my patriotism questioned. This article and the video also reminded of one of the reasons why, despite being republican I could not bring myself to vote for Donald Trump. I watched one of his speeches and one of my biggest quarrels was how he generalized all muslims. It seemed like he couldn’t differentiate between peaceful muslims and terrorist and that bothered me especially since one of my good friends growing up is muslim. The opera video also showed this generation of all muslims as the lady who was arguing continuously talked about having to assimilate. I think what her and many other people think is that all muslims want to follow extreme versions of their religion like sharia law and implement that in the U.S which scares them. They don’t realize that their are many moderate muslims who do not think like that and that can assimilate to the culture but also keep certain non harmful aspect of their religion like the hijab.
1. Claire Brown says:
  
  April 23, 2017 at 11:23 pm
  
  I am so glad you bring up Donald Trump and being Republican. This fall, I found myself in a very similar situation. While I consider myself Republican, I could not justify the horrific words Trump was saying about Muslims and minority groups and had way to many qualms with him to support his candidacy. The generalizations and stereotyping regarding practically every group he talked about seemed to permeate into the mainstream, non-politician Republican talk and coax out issues that had been festering in American society for years. The most unfortunate part of these generalizations and mislabels to me is that people seem to only remember the negative in regards to events and hold onto certain details while forgetting others. What I mean by this is that people might view a terrorist event and hold fast to the Muslim identity of the perpetrators while forgetting critical details such as the form of Islam (clearly a radical and twisted form) the acts where committed in the name of. This then comes back in the form of unfair prejudices and unjust treatment of people who are wholly unconnected to terrorist attacks but must face the consequences regardless. Hopefully in the future, America can transform itself and its thinking to make our country, based on freedom and safety, a place where all of its citizens feel free and safe.
Steven Zhang says:

March 29, 2017 at 2:34 am

The article “The War on Terror Through Arab American” studies how did the newspaper Arab American News representing and protecting Arab Americans during post-9/11 period. As the article mentions, the Bush administration recast the diversity into divided loyalties. The Arab Americans who rejected his foreign policies were under suspicion and were comparatively vulnerable under the ideas such as secret confinement and sealed warrants. The newspaper served as an enclaved counterpublic or a satellite counterpublic, which shelter the Arab Americans and subtly shift the rhetoric, to provide protection.

The article argues points out that Arab Americans have “hybrid identity that combined patriotism
for America with loyalty to Arabs of the diaspora and back in the Middle East”. However, in a broader view, every minority might have similar identity and experiences. The voice of minorities is always repressed under the rhetorical power of administrations. In this case, the Arab Americans had to constantly post articles in the newspaper to claim their patriotism and national pride and being cautious that the content was in a certain, appropriate extent. Besides that, the minorities have little power to defend themselves against the political power.

Besides, the article also mentions that the struggle of Arab Americans existed before the 9/11 attack. In the 1990s the Arab Americans had suffered from political bias like “secret evidence” that was routinely used to detain US resident. The phenomenon mentioned in the article is not new and not trivial. I also agree with the idea in the conclusion of the article. The Arab American News itself was not a resistance. What it was asking, and what should we expect, is the open-minded mainstream that always ready to listen.
1. Claire Brown says:
  
  April 23, 2017 at 11:32 pm
  
  The lack of mainstream understanding towards minorities who wish to maintain their “hybrid identity” as the article calls it is an unfortunate reality in today’s society. While people are working towards a more accepting mainstream, there is still much to be done before all Americans have the basic freedom to maintain whichever identity or collection of identities they wish. One observation that I have is, at least in my opinion from what I have seen and heard from others, that the groups and organizations working towards this noble goal seem to have a very singular identity which might compromise their effectiveness. While I am willing to bet that this is not the case, what I mean by this is that the spokespeople and representatives of groups advocating for these basic human rights have a very singular identity (beyond the cause they are advocating for) rather than being seen as the unity of all people for one cause. Whatever the case may be, we can only hope that in the very near future, people from every minority group will find the respect for their identities that everyone deserves.
Sophia Bruce says:

March 29, 2017 at 10:04 am

Kaufer and Al-Malki’s The War on Terror through Arab-American Eyes made me think about rhetoric in a completely different way. Typically, we look at how rhetoric is created and what the goals are through rhetoric, what changes it makes from those creating the rhetoric, and how the rhetoric can help reach certain goals. We don’t typically get to see a first hand account of how rhetoric affects those towards who it is directed, and this article shed light on exactly that. The Arab-Americans were one of the first to become a minority, those who were victimized by anti-terrorism rhetoric during the war on terror. There was a tug of war between what felt right and what was right: being okay with the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act, or seeing a minority for what it really was, which was the creation of a group of people through stereotypes and forceful rhetoric. Arab-Americans were forced to choose between the two categories they were placed into, either entirely patriotic Americans or, what most people automatically put them into, that of a terrorist or an “other”. The Arab-Americans felt that they must affirm their Americanism to others, although they are somewhat contradicting the idea of being an American as America was founded on religious freedom and the freedom of speech, both of which are being suppressed for the Arab-Americans. Through the war on terror, their status as Americans was questioned, and so they too had to use forms of rhetoric to prove themselves worthy, when in reality it was the other group of people that was putting them into the groups they were trying to make their way out of.
1. Claire Brown says:
  
  April 23, 2017 at 11:38 pm
  
  The rhetoric produced by Arab-Americans post 9/11 calls attention to the power of society and just how careful people need to be in what they say and how they act. Innocent Arab-Americans faced tremendous suffering at the hands of the people who were claiming to be uniting in the face of terrorism. Arab-American citizens after the attacks of 9/11 had to not only overcome the loss felt by every American citizen, but then be forced to endure an outrageous “test of Americanism” that nobody who had recently faced 9/11 should have ever had to face (rephrasing that, nobody should ever feel the need to prove their patriotism towards their country to feel safe and welcome). This article reinforces the message regarding the power of prejudice and stereotyping, and living in the world we do today, with leaders who do not speak in a way that respects all people, it is more important than ever to remember.
Madeline Tolsdorf says:

March 29, 2017 at 11:17 am

The article we read by Kaufer and Al-Malki definitely made me sit back and think about the Middle East and national relations post-9/11 because of the different perspective. We’ve discussed in class a lot about the pros and cons of rhetoric and when/if it should be employed in certain situations and this article helped me comprehend some of the reasons rhetoric should not be used. Arab-Americans are a minority here and although before 9/11 they already faced racial slurs and tensions, their lives in a post-9/11 America have become unsafe, unstable, and threatened. The Arab-Americans were forced to make a decision, and even those who chose to be incredible patriotic and express their love of America still face constant discrimination from their fellow Americans because of the way they look and their personal beliefs. The Arab-Americans cannot live as Americans because they are discriminated and oppressed within all their beliefs. Now, with Trump as President, the Arab-Americans also have to worry about being allowed to travel to visit family and being allowed to return home.
1. Claire Brown says:
  
  April 23, 2017 at 11:44 pm
  
  The challenges and obstacles faced by Arab-Americans since the 9/11 attacks have been tremendous and as a non-Arab American, I know I cannot begin to fathom the depth of the everyday struggles they face that I do not. This article highlights the measures that these American citizens went to to attempt to feel as valued members of a society that they already belonged to just as much as the people making them feel as inferior people. The fact that any group of Americans was and still is made to feel unwelcome and unsafe is a tragic and wholeheartedly disappointing shortcoming on the part of us as a country. It should be a priority to ensure that no minority ever feels that outcast again, unfortunately, that is not currently the case. This leaves us with the promise of the future and the hope and obligation of all Americans to force a change and to make America a place where all Americans feel united.
Emily Wu says:

March 29, 2017 at 11:42 am

I thought that the article “The War on Terror through Arab-American Eyes” was interesting as it provided an Arab American perspective on the war while examining how those perspectives were shaped and circulated. Understanding the Arab American press as a counterpublic as the authors argue highlights its protective and aggressive functions; it can serve as a safe setting for expression as well as means to challenge and change the dominant public. However, a dominant public can similarly weaken counterpublics because a dominant public and its counterpublics are connected by the flows of discourse between them. The enclave and satellite types of counterpublics emphasize a struggle between assimilation and separation that is imposed by the dominant public. Arab Americans for example practiced “imperative patriotism” in order to avoid suspicion and scrutiny. I thought it was interesting that while statements issued by the Bush Administration such as “They’re American too” temper paranoia and employ sympathy, they also make Arab Americans subject ( pressure them) to a specific set of expected beliefs and behaviors. Even the satellite stories that criticized American policy were crafted carefully and “from the standpoint of respectful dissent.” There is a lack of understanding about the hybrid culture of Arab Americans that is reinforced by dominant attitudes and practices that attempt to restrict or reduce Arab American discourse on the war.
1. Claire Brown says:
  
  April 23, 2017 at 11:49 pm
  
  The quote form the Bush administration that you mention is very interesting as including the word “too” clearly reflects the sentiments from not only that day, but the current environment as well. Saying “too” implies that in a different world, the subjects are not Americans. The need to say “too” is something that is greatly upsetting but unfortunately not something that could only be applied to Arab-Americans. Contrary to American principles, that statement could seamlessly be fit into a speech about any number of minorities and so it might be suspected that the measures Arab-Americans went and still go to prove their Americanism are undertaken by countless other groups as well. As a society, we have an obligation to these groups to see them as they are, not as the mainstream might tell us to view them, and to show them the respect and dignity merited by their human dignity and as represented in their American freedoms.
Michael Paul says:

March 29, 2017 at 11:43 am

Growing up, I never noticed different religions and ethnicities amongst my friends. Fast forward 19 years and I have grown to be more aware of the differences in surrounding people. I largely blame this on society’s influence on me, and every other person I have met. This is clearly a basis for what Kaufer and Al-Malki call the “counterpublic” as a reaction to ethno-nationalism in America. I have always wondered whether it is a cultural norm across the globe to use “different” people as scapegoats for society’s problems. Had the terrorist attack on 9/11 been white males, I can’t say I could see it having as big an impact as it had. This leads me to consider America as a whole. We claim to be a melting pot of many different cultures, ethnicities, and people, yet I find this not to be the case. Arguably, America is more of a “symphony,” where groups of people separate themselves into like groups. In America, Kaufer and AL-Malki argue that Muslim-Americans are viewed as not “real” Americans. Muslim-Americans are not the only group subject to this de-facto type of segregation, though. I see this throughout American culture, including African Americans and Hispanics. What worries me is that this issue is not getting better, and especially since the election of president Trump, appears to have gotten worse. The more these issues are brought to light in a negative way, more people will be willing will voice their opinions. This resentment has manifested itself in American culture to a point where I can’t see a future without racial, ethnic, and cultural resentment. America was built on liberty and freedom, but what America has turned into does not follow these ideals. My only hope is that people will come to realize that Americans are Americans, regardless of any other factor.
1. Claire Brown says:
  
  April 23, 2017 at 11:59 pm
  
  Thinking back to when I was little, I note the simplicity and innocent lens in which I viewed the world. When I was little, I was aware of differences among people, no pretending there, but I did not see any reason for division or prejudice between these groups. Growing up, I have become aware of the unfortunate divisions society has placed that pull people apart and cast stereotypes on nearly every type of dividing line possible. The rhetoric analyzed in this article is precisely to that point, as it shows how people were divided along lines that should not create negative division and judgement, but lines that should be celebrated and seen as factors to unite. America was founded on the principles of the freedom to exist as you are with no government enforcing a type or form that must be followed (other than criminal behavior), so the factors that make up American citizens identities, be it race, religion, or anything else, should be celebrated as something that only enhances American and adds to our rich culture of cultures. This is a place where people should feel safe to be who they are and we must do what we can to make it so.
Virginia Thornton says:

April 22, 2017 at 8:18 am

I found this article very interesting. I thought that the two theories of counterpublics that the article claims were displayed are both very still relevant today. At my high school there were a handful of students who identified as Arabic, many of whom were also Muslim. My high school always gave students opportunities to speak about whatever things were important to them. One day a girl who I barely knew got up and told the story of her journey to Mecca the previous summer. She said that her whole freshman year at our high school she felt out of place. She felt different and like she didn’t belong because she was a Muslim of middle-eastern descent even though she had lived in America her entire life. She talked about how excited she had been about her upcoming trip to the holiest place of her religion, where she would surely fit in. She said, though, that as soon as she got there, she and her family stood out from everyone else. She said people walking by them or in restaurants would call them “America” and tell her and her family to “go home.” She said she felt so lost. She didn’t fit in in America because she was Muslim, but didn’t fit in at Mecca because she was American.
The article reminded me of this girl’s story because it’s argument that the Arab-American community is a hybrid of the two counterpublics. Many feel isolated from both communities and find it hard to feel like they belong anywhere, just like the girl in my school.
1. Claire Brown says:
  
  April 24, 2017 at 12:07 am
  
  The unfortunate dilemma of “home” plays such a critical role in the article above as well as in today’s society. Many minorities do not feel as at home in America as they should be able to feel and even though we do not live in a perfect world, it does not take perfection to ask that all citizens of America are treated as such. Just like the girl in your school, the Arab-Americans mentioned in the article who left America post 9/11 did not feel a full member of society. It deeply saddens me to know that there are people in my own country who do not feel welcomed as a valued community member. It is really a call to action for us as Americans to step up and make sure that the country that was founded on the principles of freedom and equality becomes such for all citizens.
  1. Virginia Thornton says:
    
    April 25, 2017 at 5:20 pm
    
    I agree with your comments completely. America was founded my immigrants and has grown and become as strong as we are because of them. We all are, or come from immigrants (unless we are 100% Native American) meaning when we treat immigrants badly we are taking for granted our ancestors for granted. These actions are not fair and not what I see as “American.”

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