{"id":5543,"date":"2026-01-01T07:11:29","date_gmt":"2026-01-01T12:11:29","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/blog.richmond.edu\/heroes\/?p=5543"},"modified":"2026-04-12T06:40:34","modified_gmt":"2026-04-12T10:40:34","slug":"heroism-phenomena-identified-by-scott-allisons-research-lab-2005-present","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/blog.richmond.edu\/heroes\/2026\/01\/01\/heroism-phenomena-identified-by-scott-allisons-research-lab-2005-present\/","title":{"rendered":"Heroism Phenomena Identified by Scott Allison’s Research Lab 2005-Present"},"content":{"rendered":"

\"\"<\/a>Below is a partial listing of heroism-related phenomena discovered by Dr. Scott T. Allison’s research lab<\/a> from 2005 to the present day.<\/p>\n

1. The Death Positivity Bias<\/strong> \u2013 2005<\/p>\n

DEFINITION: The tendency of people to evaluate the dead more favorably than the living. This is one way we “heroize” past legendary figures.<\/p>\n

Allison, S. T., & Eylon, D. (2005). The demise of leadership: Death positivity biases in posthumous impressions of leaders. In D. Messick & R. Kramer (Eds.), The Psychology of Leadership: New Perspectives and Research (pp 295-317). New York: Erlbaum.<\/em><\/p>\n

Allison, S. T. (2024). Death positivity bias and heroism. In S. T. Allison, J. K. Beggan, and G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies. Springer.<\/em><\/p>\n

2. The Frozen in Time Effect<\/strong> \u2013 2005<\/p>\n

DEFINITION: People\u2019s tendency to resist changing their impressions of dead heroes compared to living heroes.<\/p>\n

Eylon, D., & Allison, S. T. (2005). The frozen in time effect in evaluations of the dead. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 1708-1717.<\/em><\/p>\n

Allison, S. T. (2024). Frozen in time effect and heroism. In S. T. Allison, J. K. Beggan, and G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies. Springer.<\/em><\/p>\n

3. The Underdog Abandonment Effect<\/strong> \u2013 2008<\/p>\n

DEFINITION: The tendency of people to no longer root for underdog heroes when their success has low self-relevance and low consequences.<\/p>\n

Kim, J., Allison, S. T., Eylon, D., Goethals, G., Markus, M., McGuire, H., & Hindle, S. (2008). Rooting for (and then Abandoning) the Underdog. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 38, 2550-2573.<\/em><\/p>\n

4. The Great Eight Traits of Heroes<\/strong> \u2013 2011<\/p>\n

DEFINITION: The discovery that people believe that heroes possess the traits of wise, strong, charismatic, caring, resilient, reliable, selfless, and inspiring.<\/p>\n

Allison, S. T., & Goethals, G. R. (2011). Heroes: What they do and why we need them.\u00a0 Oxford University Press.<\/em><\/p>\n

5. Social Influence Based Taxonomy of Heroism<\/strong> \u2013 2012<\/p>\n

DEFINITION: The scientific identification of heroes as Transforming, Transfigured, Traditional, Transparent, Transposed, Tragic, Transitional, Transitory, Trending, and Transcendent.<\/p>\n

Allison, S. T., & Goethals, G. R. (2013). Heroic leadership: An influence taxonomy of 100 exceptional individuals. Routledge.<\/em><\/p>\n

6. The Heroic Leadership <\/strong>Dynamic<\/strong> \u2013 2014<\/p>\n

DEFINITION: A system of psychological forces that can explain how humans are drawn to heroes, how they benefit from these heroes and their stories, and how heroic tales help people become heroes themselves.<\/p>\n

Allison, S. T., & Goethals, G. R. (2014). \u201cNow he belongs to the ages\u201d: The heroic leadership dynamic and deep narratives of greatness. In Goethals, G. R., et al. (Eds.), Conceptions of leadership: Enduring ideas and emerging insights. Palgrave Macmillan.<\/em><\/p>\n

7. Epistemic and Energizing Functions of Heroism<\/strong> \u2013 2014<\/p>\n

DEFINITION: The conceptualization of the functions of heroism that includes epistemological needs involving the imparting of wisdom and emerging needs involving healing, growing, and inspiration.<\/p>\n

Allison, S. T., & Goethals, G. R. (2014). \u201cNow he belongs to the ages\u201d: The heroic leadership dynamic and deep narratives of greatness. In Goethals, G. R., et al. (Eds.), Conceptions of leadership: Enduring ideas and emerging insights. Palgrave Macmillan.<\/em><\/p>\n

8. Need-Based Heroism (AKA The Johnny Carson Effect)<\/strong> \u2013 2014<\/p>\n

DEFINITION: The tendency of people\u2019s current need states to determine their choice of heroes, with these need-states changing as a function of people\u2019s developmental stages and their changing life circumstances. (named after Johnny Carson’s quip that after all his divorces, his hero changed from Babe Ruth to King Henry VIII)<\/p>\n

Allison, S. T., & Goethals, G. R. (2016). Hero worship: The elevation of the human spirit. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 46, 187-210.<\/em><\/p>\n

Allison, S. T. (2024). Need-based heroism. In S. T. Allison, J. K. Beggan, and G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies. Springer.<\/em><\/p>\n

9. Six Benefits of Suffering<\/strong> \u2013 2016<\/p>\n

DEFINITION: The identification of benefits of heroic suffering as offering (1) redemption, (2) developmental progress, (3) humility, (4) compassion, (5) social union, and (6) meaning and purpose.<\/p>\n

Allison, S. T., & Setterberg, G. C. (2016). Suffering and sacrifice: Individual and collective benefits, and implications for leadership. In S. T. Allison, C. T. Kocher, & G. R. Goethals (Eds), Frontiers in spiritual leadership: Discovering the better angels of our nature. Palgrave Macmillan.<\/em><\/p>\n

Allison, S. T. (2024). Suffering of the hero. In S. T. Allison, J. K. Beggan, and G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies. Springer.<\/em><\/p>\n

10. Six Types of Heroic Transformation<\/strong> \u2013 2017<\/p>\n

DEFINITION: Six commons patterns of transformation in heroes that involve changes in their mental, emotional, physical, spiritual, moral, and motivational state.<\/p>\n

Allison, S. T., Goethals, G. R., & Kramer, R. M. (2017). Setting the scene: The rise and coalescence of heroism science. In S. T. Allison, G. R. Goethals, & R. M. Kramer (Eds.), Handbook of heroism and heroic leadership. Routledge.<\/em><\/p>\n

Allison, S. T. (2024). Heroic transformation. In S. T. Allison, J. K. Beggan, and G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies. Springer.<\/em><\/p>\n

11. Three Heroic Transformative Arcs<\/strong> \u2013 2017<\/p>\n

DEFINITION: The tendency of heroes to transform from a state of egocentricity to sociocentricity; from dependence to autonomy; and from stagnation to growth.<\/p>\n

Allison, S. T., & Goethals, G. R. (2017). The hero’s transformation. In S. T. Allison, G. R. Goethals, & R. M. Kramer (Eds.), Handbook of heroism and heroic leadership. Routledge.<\/em><\/p>\n

12. The Personal Heroic Imperative<\/strong> \u2013 2018<\/p>\n

DEFINITION: Each human being\u2019s built-in mandate to fulfill their heroic imperative by imagining and creating their own heroic growth.<\/p>\n

Efthimiou, O., Allison, S. T., & Franco, Z. E. (2018). Heroism and wellbeing in the 21st<\/sup> century: Recognizing our personal heroic imperative. In O. Efthimiou, S. T. Allison, & Z. E. Franco (Eds.), Heroism and wellbeing in the 21st Century: Applied and emerging perspectives.\u00a0 Routledge.<\/em><\/p>\n

13. Transcendent and Trapped Immortality<\/strong> \u2013 2018<\/p>\n

DEFINITION: The tendency of people to perceive dead<\/em> heroes and villains differently. Specifically, we believe deceased good-doers achieve\u00a0transcendent<\/em> immortality, with their souls persisting beyond space and time; and evil-doers to have trapped<\/em> immortality, with their souls persisting on Earth, bound to a physical location.<\/p>\n

Gray, K., Anderson, S., Doyle, C. M., Hester, N., Schmitt, P., Vonasch, A., Allison, S. T., and Jackson, J. C. (2018). To be immortal, do good or evil. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44, 868-880.<\/em><\/p>\n

Allison, S. T. (2024). Transcendent immortality and heroism. In S. T. Allison, J. K. Beggan, and G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies. Springer.<\/em><\/p>\n

14. Heroic Lag<\/strong> \u2013 2019<\/p>\n

DEFINITION: The delay between the point in time when a hero first expresses their heroic message and when mainstream society adopts that message.<\/p>\n

Goethals, G. R., & Allison, S. T. (2019). The romance of heroism and heroic leadership: Ambiguity, attribution, and apotheosis. Emerald.<\/em><\/p>\n

Allison, S. T. (2024). Heroic lag. In S. T. Allison, J. K. Beggan, and G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies. Springer.<\/em><\/p>\n

15. Heroic Consciousness<\/strong> \u2013 2019, 2024<\/p>\n

DEFINITION: Heroic consciousness is a state of heightened awareness, reasoning, emotional experience, self-identity, intention, and will, all aimed at saving lives, pursuing a noble cause, and promoting the greater good.<\/p>\n

Allison, S. T. (2019). Heroic consciousness. Heroism Science, 4, 1-43.<\/em><\/p>\n

Allison, S. T. (2024). Heroic consciousness. In S. T. Allison, J. K. Beggan, and G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies. Springer.<\/em><\/p>\n

16. Seven Barriers to Heroic Transformation <\/strong>\u2013 2019<\/p>\n

DEFINITION: Seven ways people avoid heroic transformation: self-ignorance, impoverished environments, personal trauma, victim identification, absence of mentors, mental\/physical illness, and lack of psychological flexibility.<\/p>\n

Allison, S. T., Goethals, G. R., Marrinan, A. R., Parker, O. M., Spyrou, S. P., Stein, M. (2019). The metamorphosis of the hero: Principles, processes, and purpose. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 606.<\/em><\/p>\n

17. Romance of Heroism \u2013 2019<\/strong><\/p>\n

DEFINITION: The romance of heroism refers to people\u2019s idealistic and quixotic notions of heroes, which leads to exaggerated perceptions of the heroic qualities in certain types of people, especially under conditions of uncertainty. Romanticized desires to designate people as heroes are subject to distortion and can induce people to choose false heroes.<\/p>\n

Goethals, G. R., & Allison, S. T. (2019). The romance of heroism and heroic leadership: Ambiguity, attribution, and apotheosis. Emerald. <\/em><\/p>\n

18. Heroic Leadership Imperative<\/strong> \u2013 2020<\/p>\n

DEFINITION: The mandate of transforming heroic leaders to meet the individual, collective, and transcendent needs of their followers.<\/p>\n

Allison, S. T. & Goethals, G. R. (2020). The heroic leadership imperative: How leaders inspire and mobilize change. Emerald.<\/em><\/p>\n

19. Heroic Wholeness Imperative<\/strong> \u2013 2020<\/p>\n

DEFINITION: The mandate of leaders to promote psychological wholeness and well-being by meeting the higher-level transcendent needs of followers.<\/p>\n

Allison, S. T. & Goethals, G. R. (2020). The heroic leadership imperative: How leaders inspire and mobilize change. Emerald.<\/em><\/p>\n

20. The Hero Androgyny Phenomenon\u00a0<\/strong> — 2020<\/p>\n

DEFINITION: The tendency of heroes to possess both masculine and feminine traits, i.e., agency plus communality.<\/p>\n

Hoyt, C. L., Allison, S. T., Barnowski, A., & Sultan, A. (2020). Lay theories of heroism and leadership: The role of gender, communion, and agency. Social Psychology, 51, 381-395. <\/em><\/p>\n

21. Puer Aeternus as an Obstacle to Heroism<\/strong><\/p>\n

DEFINITION: The Puer Aeternus complex describes an adult, often a man, who remains in an extended state of adolescence, exhibiting traits commonly associated with youth. The phenomenon represents a significant barrier to personal growth and heroism due to its characteristic evasion of the hero\u2019s journey that transforms people into their best, most heroic selves.<\/p>\n

Allison, S. T., Goethals, G. R., & Spyrou, S. P. (2020). Donald Trump as the archetypal puer aeternus: The psychology of mature and immature leadership. In K. Bezio & G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Leadership, populism, and resistance. Edward Elgar.<\/em><\/p>\n

22. Heroic Autonomy\u00a0<\/strong> — 2021<\/p>\n

DEFINITION: The imperative of the hero to perform the last and most crucial heroic act alone and independent from their friends and mentors.<\/p>\n

Allison, S. T. (2021). Beth Harmon\u2019s hero\u2019s journey: The psychology of heroism in The Queen\u2019s Gambit. Palsgrove.<\/em><\/p>\n

Allison, S. T. (2024). Heroic autonomy. In S. T. Allison, J. K. Beggan, and G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies. Springer.<\/em><\/p>\n

23. Heroic Balance\u00a0<\/strong> — 2021<\/p>\n

DEFINITION: The ability of the hero to achieve a healthy life balance needed to achieve their heroic mission. Heroes needs to balance intuition with reason; emotion with logic; self-confidence with humility; autonomy with dependency; personal life with professional life; and more.<\/p>\n

Allison, S. T. (2021). Beth Harmon\u2019s hero\u2019s journey: The psychology of heroism in The Queen\u2019s Gambit. Palsgrove.<\/em><\/p>\n

Allison, S. T. (2024). Heroic balance. In S. T. Allison, J. K. Beggan, and G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies. Springer.<\/em><\/p>\n

24. Dynamic Negotiated Exchange Theory of Heroism <\/strong>–2022<\/p>\n

DEFINITION: The dynamic negotiated exchange model of heroism refers to the processes by which the implicit exchange agreement between heroes and hero beneficiaries undergoes change. The change is often negotiated in response to a major crisis, such as the COVID pandemic of 2020-22.<\/p>\n

Allison, S. T., & Beggan, J. K. (2022). The dynamic negotiated exchange model of heroism and heroic leadership: Lessons from the COVID-19 pandemic. Interdisciplinary Journal of Leadership Studies, 1, 15-31.<\/em><\/p>\n

25. Motional Intelligence —<\/strong> 2023<\/p>\n

DEFINITION: A form of kinesthetic intelligence that enables leaders to move the emotions of their followers. It is the ability of heroic (and villainous) leaders to use their body movements and voices effectively in a way that inspires and mobilizes followers.<\/p>\n

Allison, S. T. (2023). Motional intelligence and leadership. In G. R. Goethals, S. T. Allison, & G. J. Sorenson (Eds.). The SAGE Encyclopedia of Leadership Studies. Sage.<\/em><\/p>\n

Allison, S. T., & Goethals, G. R. (2026). Motional intelligence: The power of movement in leadership. Emerald.<\/em><\/p>\n

26. Hero Illiteracy —<\/strong> 2024<\/p>\n

DEFINITION: The lack of knowledge about heroism, or a misunderstanding about what comprises heroism. The condition can afflict an individual or an entire society. It can include an inability to distinguish heroes from villains and an erroneous belief that money, fame, and celebrity status are the determinants of heroism.<\/div>\n
.<\/div>\n
Allison, S. T., & Beggan, J. K.\u00a0 (2024). Hero Illiteracy. In S. T. Allison, J. K. Beggan, and G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies. Springer.<\/em><\/div>\n
.<\/div>\n
27. Heroism Attribution Error \u2013<\/strong> 2024<\/div>\n
.<\/div>\n
\n

DEFINITION: The tendency of people to confuse fame for heroism, such that they attribute heroism to celebrities who are famous for non-heroic reasons.<\/p>\n

Allison, S. T. (2024). Heroism attribution error. In S. T. Allison, J. K. Beggan, and G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies. Springer.<\/em><\/p>\n

28. Intuitive Heroism<\/strong> — 2024<\/p>\n

DEFINITION: Intuitive heroism refers to how individuals naturally and intuitively make sense of heroism. People have their own ideas about what heroes do, what heroes are like, and what motivates heroism. These intuitive notions of heroism are accurate in some ways but also contain factual errors and misunderstandings about heroism.<\/p>\n

Allison, S. T. (2024). Intuitive heroism. In S. T. Allison, J. K. Beggan, and G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies. Springer.<\/em><\/p>\n

29. Perfect Confluence and Heroism<\/strong> — 2024<\/p>\n

DEFINITION: The \u201cperfect storm\u201d is a term often used metaphorically to describe situations where a convergence of multiple factors leads to a particularly significant or catastrophic outcome. The perfect confluence<\/em> refers to any convergence of circumstances that results in a particularly positive or heroic outcome.<\/p>\n

Allison, S. T. (2024). Perfect storm, perfect confluence, and heroism. In S. T. Allison, J. K. Beggan, and G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies. Springer.<\/em><\/p>\n

30. Heroism-by-Proxy<\/strong> — 2024<\/p>\n

DEFINITION: Heroism-by-proxy describes a psychological phenomenon that occurs when an individual develops a strong psychological association with a hero or a heroic figure, leading to a sense of personal heroism. Heroism-by-proxy can be constructive when it inspires heroism but can be destructive when it engenders either complacency or a psychological identification with violent, divisive leaders.<\/p>\n

Allison, S. T., Beggan, J. K., & Goethals, G. R. (2024). Heroism-by-Proxy. In S. T. Allison, J. K. Beggan, and G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies. Springer.<\/em><\/p>\n

31. Amalgamated Heroes<\/strong> — 2024<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

\n

DEFINITION: An amalgamated hero is a legendary, cultural hero who is derived from a complex blending of similar historical figures and our own cognitive embellishments of those figures.<\/p>\n

Allison, S. T. & Hutchins, R. (2024). Amalgamated heroes. In S. T. Allison, J. K. Beggan, and G. R. Goethals (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Heroism Studies. Springer.<\/em><\/p>\n

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32. Chrono-Archetypes<\/strong> — 2025<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

\n

DEFINITION: Chrono-archetypes are symbolic inner personas grounded in Zimbardo\u2019s Time Perspective Theory. They are dynamic, narrative-based identities (e.g., Legacy Keeper, Visionary, Wounded Historian) that respond to everyday \u201ccalls to action,\u201d including ethical dilemmas, crises, and opportunities for prosocial innovation.<\/p>\n

Allison, S. T. (2025). Temporal identities and moral courage: A chrono-archetype model of workplace heroism. Journal of Organizational Psychology, 25(3), 129-145.<\/em><\/p>\n

\n

33. The Glass Mask Phenomenon<\/strong> — 2026<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

\n

DEFINITION: The Glass Mask describes a subtle imbalance in how leadership is perceived: the same movements that help men be seen as both capable leaders and admirable figures do not always carry the same meaning when expressed by women. By weakening the natural link between authority and admiration, the Glass Mask makes women\u2019s leadership less immediately recognizable as heroic and more likely to be viewed through caution or constraint.<\/p>\n

Allison, S. T., & Goethals, G. R. (2026). Motional Intelligence: The Power of Movement in Leadership. Emerald.<\/em><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

<\/div>\n

\"\"<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Below is a partial listing of heroism-related phenomena discovered by Dr. Scott T. Allison’s research lab from 2005 to the present day. 1. The Death Positivity Bias \u2013 2005 DEFINITION: The tendency of people to evaluate the dead more favorably than the living. This is one way we “heroize” past legendary figures. Allison, S. T., … Continue reading Heroism Phenomena Identified by Scott Allison’s Research Lab 2005-Present<\/span> →<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1182,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_jetpack_newsletter_access":"","_jetpack_dont_email_post_to_subs":false,"_jetpack_newsletter_tier_id":0,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paywalled_content":false,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paid_content":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[5444],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-5543","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-commentary-and-analysis"],"jetpack_featured_media_url":"","jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"jetpack_shortlink":"https:\/\/wp.me\/phawtM-1rp","jetpack_likes_enabled":true,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/blog.richmond.edu\/heroes\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/5543","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/blog.richmond.edu\/heroes\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/blog.richmond.edu\/heroes\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blog.richmond.edu\/heroes\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1182"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blog.richmond.edu\/heroes\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=5543"}],"version-history":[{"count":41,"href":"https:\/\/blog.richmond.edu\/heroes\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/5543\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":5986,"href":"https:\/\/blog.richmond.edu\/heroes\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/5543\/revisions\/5986"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/blog.richmond.edu\/heroes\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=5543"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blog.richmond.edu\/heroes\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=5543"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blog.richmond.edu\/heroes\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=5543"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}